Vegetarianism

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Vegetarian
)

Not to be confused with Veganism.
Vegetarianism
raw veganism, fruitarianism, Buddhist vegetarianism, Jain vegetarianism, Jewish vegetarianism, Christian vegetarianism, Sattvic vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter.[1][2]

Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons. Many people

aesthetic, economic, taste-related, or relate to other personal preferences
.

There are many variations of the vegetarian diet: an

vegan diet excludes all animal products
, and can be accompanied by abstention from the use of animal-derived products, such as leather shoes.

Vegetarian diets pose some difficulties. For

nutritional deficiency.[3] Packaged and processed foods may contain minor quantities of animal ingredients.[2][4] While some vegetarians scrutinize product labels for such ingredients, others do not object to consuming them, or are unaware of their presence.[2][5][6]

Origin

The first written use of the term "vegetarian" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet.[7] Historically, 'vegetable' could be used to refer to any type of edible vegetation.[8] Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable (adjective) and the suffix -arian (in the sense of agrarian).[9] The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847,[10] although it may have appeared in print before 1847.[10][11][12] The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House—a school on the north side of Ham Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves.[11][12][13] From 1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet entitled The Healthian, which provides some of the earliest appearances of the term "vegetarian".[11]

History

Main article: History of vegetarianism
Parshwanatha founded Jain vegetarianism
in the 9th century BCE

The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from the 9th century BCE,

tirthankaras in Jainism, respectively, revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism.[17][18][19] In Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[20] The Acharanga Sutra from 5th century BCE advocates Jain-vegetarianism; and forbids the monks from walking on grass in order to avoid inflicting pain on them and prevent small insects dwelling inside from getting killed.[21]

Vegetarianism in ancient India
Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The only exception is that of the Chandalas. That is the name for those who are (held to be) wicked men, and live apart from others. ... In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities they use cowries. Only the Chandalas are fishermen and hunters, and sell flesh meat.

— Faxian, Chinese pilgrim to India (4th/5th century CE), A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms (translated by James Legge)[22][23]

The ancient Indian work of the

non-killing as a common man's virtues.[24]: 156–171 [25]: 13 [26]: 127–129  Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism.[27][28]

Among the

Thracian region by the Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.[33]

Emperor Tenmu began bans on killing and eating meat in 675 CE in Japan.

In

meat analogues including pork, fowl, eggs and crab roe[35][36] and many meat substitutes used even today such as tofu, seitan and konjac
originate in Chinese Buddhist cuisine.

Labeling is mandatory in India to distinguish vegetarian products (green) from non-vegetarian products (brown).[37]

Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in

beavers.[40] Vegetarianism re-emerged during the Renaissance,[41] becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom;[42] Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived.[43]: 345–358  The International Vegetarian Union
, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns.

Varieties

foods
A vegetarian hamburger with potato slices
Comparison of the main vegetarian diets
Meat
Eggs
 Dairy
Ovo-lacto vegetarianism
 No Yes Yes
Ovo vegetarianism No Yes No
Lacto vegetarianism No No Yes
Vegan
diet 		No No No
Comparison of selected vegetarian and semi-vegetarian diets (view template)
Plants Dairy Eggs Seafood Poultry All other animals
Vegetarianism
Ovo-lacto vegetarianism
 Yes Yes Yes No No No
Ovo vegetarianism Yes No Yes No No No
Lacto vegetarianism Yes Yes No No No No
Veganism Yes No No No No No
Semi-vegetarianism
 Flexitarianism Yes Yes Yes Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes
Pollotarianism Yes Maybe Maybe Maybe Yes No
Pescetarianism Yes Maybe Maybe Yes No No

There are a number of vegetarian diets that exclude or include various foods:

  • Fruitarianism permits only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.[44]
  • Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans.
  • Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs.
  • Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy products.
  • Ovo-lacto vegetarianism
    (or lacto-ovo vegetarianism) includes animal products such as eggs, milk, and honey.
  • pungent
    spices) are sometimes excluded, as well.
  • baking soda or white sugar refined with bone char
    .
    • Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Food must not be heated above 118 °F (48 °C) to be considered "raw". Usually, raw vegan food is only ever "cooked" with a food dehydrator
      at low temperatures.

Within the "

eggs (with balut
being an extreme example); however, such distinction is typically not specifically addressed.

Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing. For example, sugars that are whitened with bone char, cheeses that use animal rennet (enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from the collagen inside animals' skin, bones, and connective tissue), some cane sugar (but not beet sugar) and beverages (such as apple juice and alcohol) clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon, while other vegetarians are unaware of, or do not mind, such ingredients.[2][4][5] In the 21st century, 90% of rennet and chymosin used in cheesemaking are derived from industrial fermentation processes, which satisfy both kosher and halal requirements.[46]

Individuals sometimes label themselves "vegetarian" while practicing a

semi-vegetarian diet,[47][48][49] as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish,[50] or only include mammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat,[50][51] while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh.[52] In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as "flexitarian".[48][53]
These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include:

Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups, such as the Vegetarian Society, which states that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh.[52]

Consumption of eggs is not considered to be a part of a vegetarian diet in India, as egg is an animal product that gives birth to the next generation of the relevant species.

Health research

On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (particularly saturated fatty acids), fewer overall calories, more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C, than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians.

Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 – A report issued by the

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services[54]

dietary guidelines
:
  Supporters
  Informers
  Uninformed
  Critics
  No guidelines
  Guideline not analysed
Acorn soup
A fruit stall in Barcelona

In Western countries, the most common motive for people practicing vegetarianism is health consciousness.

American Dietetic Association has stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet can be "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."[57] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals.[57][58]

Bones

Studies have shown that a vegetarian diet may increase the risk of calcium deficiency and low

bone mineral density.[59] A 2019 review found that vegetarians have lower bone mineral density at the femoral neck and lumbar spine compared to omnivores.[60] A 2020 meta-analysis found that infants fed a lacto-vegetarian diet exhibited normal growth and development.[59] A 2021 review found no differences in growth between vegetarian and meat-eating children.[61]

Diabetes

Vegetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to help people with type 2 diabetes.[57][62][63]

Cardiovascular system

Meta-analyses have reported a reduced risk of death from

ischemic heart disease and from cerebrovascular disease among vegetarians.[64]

Mental health

Reviews of vegan and vegetarian diets showed a possible association with depression and anxiety, particularly among people under 26 years old.[65][66] Another review found no significant associations between a vegetarian diet and depression or anxiety.[67]

Eating disorders

The

American Dietetic Association discussed that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders, indicating that vegetarian diets do not cause eating disorders, but rather "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder".[68]

Mortality risk

A 2012 study found a reduced risk in all-cause mortality in vegetarians.[69] A 2017 review found a lower mortality (−25%) from ischemic heart disease.[70]

Diet composition and nutrition

Main articles: Vegetarian nutrition and vegan nutrition

Western vegetarian diets are typically high in

folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.[73] A well planned vegetarian diet will provide all nutrients in a meat-eater's diet to the same level for all stages of life.[74]

Protein

Protein intake in vegetarian diets tends to be lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people.[75] Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and various European countries, confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.[76]

Iron

Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower

American Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet.[82]

Vitamin B12

cardiovascular diseases.[83][87] The recommended daily dietary intake of B12 in the United States and Canada is 0.4 mcg (ages 0–6 months), rising to 1.8 mcg (9–13 years), 2.4 mcg (14+ years), and 2.8 mcg (lactating female).[84] While the body's daily requirement for vitamin B12 is in microgram amounts, deficiency of the vitamin through strict practice of a vegetarian diet without supplementation can increase the risk of several chronic diseases.[83][87][84]

Fatty acids

Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of

alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).[89][90]

Calcium

Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as the diet is properly planned.[91] Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese.[92]

Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk and

beet greens, they are generally not considered to be a good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body.[92] Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates.[92] See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages,[92] the Vegetarian Resource Group[93] and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics[91]
for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on a vegetarian or vegan diet.

Vitamin D

Further information: Vitamin D

Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight.

cereal grains may be fortified to provide a source of vitamin D.[97]
For those who do not get adequate sun exposure or food sources, vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

Vitamin D2

  • Plants
    • Alfalfa (Medicago sativa subsp. sativa), shoot: 4.8 μg (192 IU) vitamin D2, 0.1 μg (4 IU) vitamin D3[98]
  • Fungus, from USDA nutrient database,[99] per 100 g:
    • Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to
      ultraviolet light
      , raw: Vitamin D2: 11.2 μg (446 IU)
    • Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to ultraviolet light, grilled: Vitamin D2: 13.1 μg (524 IU)
    • Mushrooms, shiitake, dried: Vitamin D2: 3.9 μg (154 IU)
    • Mushrooms, shiitake, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.4 μg (18 IU)
    • Mushrooms, portabella, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.3 μg (10 IU)
    • Mushroom powder, any species, illuminated with sunlight or artificial ultraviolet light sources

Vitamin D2, or

UV-irradiated fungus including yeast form vitamin D2.[100] Human bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2-enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from a vitamin D2 supplement according to study.[101] For example, vitamin D2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable.[102]
By visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of "whiteness", was observed[103] making it hard to discover if they have been treated without labeling. Claims have been made that a normal serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup, or 60 grams) of mushrooms treated with ultraviolet light increase their vitamin D content to levels up to 80 micrograms,[104] or 2700 IU if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested.[105]

Choline

Main article: Choline

Choline is a nutrient that helps transfer signals between nerve cells and is involved in liver function. It is highest in dairy foods and meat but it is possible to be obtained through a vegan diet.[106]

Ethics and diet

General

Main article: Ethics of eating meat

With regard to the ethics of eating meat, scholars consider vegetarianism an

factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat out of concern that meat production places a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein.[109] Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production
of meat.

Ethics of killing for food

Main article: Bioethics

Ethical vegetarians believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, or nutrition value is not a sufficient cause.[110] Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behavior in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards.[111] Jeff McMahan proposes that denying the right to life and humane treatment to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary and discriminatory practice based on habit instead of logic.[112] Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are not moral equals to humans and so consider the comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious. This view does not excuse cruelty, but maintains that animals do not possess the rights a human has.[113]

Dairy and eggs

One of the main differences between a

eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes the animal suffering or a premature death.[114]

To produce milk from dairy cattle, farmers separate calves from their mothers soon after birth to retain cow milk for human consumption.[115]

Treatment of animals

Main article: Animal rights

factory farming and environmental consciousness. Some believe that the current mass-demand for meat cannot be satisfied without a mass-production system that disregards the welfare of animals, while others believe that practices like well-managed free-range farming or the consumption of game (particularly from species whose natural predators have been significantly eliminated) could substantially alleviate consumer demand for mass-produced meat.[116]

Religion and diet

Main article: Vegetarianism and religion

Hare Krishnas. Sikhism[119][120] does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.[121]

Baháʼí Faith

While there are no dietary restrictions in the

`Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the religion's founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick.[122] He stated that there are no requirements that Baháʼís become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian.[122][123][124] `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion.[122] While Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals,[125] both he and the Universal House of Justice, the governing body of the Baháʼís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Baháʼí practice and that Baháʼís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs.[122]

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhist vegetarianism
Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, Spiti, India

Theravadins in general eat meat.

bear, and hyena flesh[128]) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made.[a][129]

In several

Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat.[130][131][132][133] However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, actually do eat meat.[134][135]

Meanwhile, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese Buddhism (in some sectors of East Asian Buddhism) monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat, and traditionally, to abstain from eggs and dairy as well.[136][137][138][139][140]

Different Buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. Many interpret the

precept "not to kill" to require abstinence from meat, but not all. In Taiwan, su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in the allium
family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots.

Christianity

Main article: Christian vegetarianism

Various groups within Christianity have practiced specific dietary restrictions for various reasons.[141] The Council of Jerusalem in around 50 AD, recommended Christians keep following some of the Jewish food laws concerning meat. The early sect known as the Ebionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. Surviving fragments from their Gospel indicate their belief that – as Christ is the Passover sacrifice and eating the Passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. However, orthodox Christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. Indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism was cited as one of the Ebionites' "errors".[142][143]

At a much later time, the Bible Christian Church founded by Reverend William Cowherd in 1809 followed a vegetarian diet.[144] Cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society.[145] Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance.[146]

unclean meats, or those forbidden in scripture.[149]

Additionally, some

pescatarian diet, and members of the Eastern Orthodox Church follow a vegan diet during fasts.[150] There is also a strong association between the Quakers and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, anti-vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."[151]

Seventh-day Adventist

Christianity and alcohol). In addition, some Adventists avoid coffee, tea, cola, and other beverages containing caffeine.[citation needed
]

The pioneers of the Adventist Church had much to do with the common acceptance of

Washington Adventist Hospital.[153]

Research funded by the U.S.

National Geographic, asserts that Adventists live longer because they do not smoke or drink alcohol, have a day of rest every week, and maintain a healthy, low-fat vegetarian diet that is rich in nuts and beans.[154] The cohesiveness of Adventists' social networks has also been put forward as an explanation for their extended lifespan.[155]
Since
blue zone" because of the large concentration of Seventh-day Adventists. He cites the Adventist emphasis on health, diet, and Sabbath-keeping as primary factors for Adventist longevity.[156]

An estimated 35% of Adventists practice vegetarianism or

vegetarians, 10% were Pesco-vegetarians and 8% were vegans. It is common for Adventists who choose to eat meat to follow highly vegetarian diets; 6% of the "meat-eaters" group restricted their intake of meat/fish to no more than once per week.[159]

Hinduism

Main article: Diet in Hinduism
Illustrative of vegetarian Hindu meals

Though there is no strict rule on what to consume and what not to, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their specific caste and sub-caste, community, location, custom and varying traditions. Historically and currently, a majority of Hindus (about 70%) eat meat, while a large proportion of Hindus are vegetarian (about 30%).[160]

Some sects of

prasada; and the conviction that a sattvic diet is beneficial for a healthy body. A sattvic diet is lacto-vegetarian, which includes dairy, but excludes eggs.[162] An overwhelming majority of the Hindus consider the cow to be a holy and sacred animal whose slaughter for meat is forbidden. Thus, beef is a taboo for the majority of Hindus, Jains and Sikhs[163]

Islam

See also: Animals in Islam and Islamic dietary laws

Some followers of Islam, or Muslims, chose to be vegetarian for health, ethical, or personal reasons. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial due to conflicting

fatwas and differing interpretations of the Quran. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.[164][165]

Sri Lankan Sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia.[clarification needed] The former Indian president Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was also famously a vegetarian.[166][167]

In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.[168]

Many non-vegetarian Muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants. However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole.[165]

Jainism

Main article: Jain vegetarianism
The food choices of Jains are based on the value of Ahimsa (non-violence).

Followers of Jainism believe that all living organisms, including microorganisms, are living and have a soul, and have one or more senses out of five senses. They go to great lengths to minimise any harm to any living organism. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians, but more devout Jains do not eat root vegetables, because they believe that root vegetables contain many more microorganisms as compared to other vegetables, and that, by eating them, violence against these microorganisms is inevitable. They therefore prefer eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation involves killing fewer microorganisms. No products obtained from already-dead animals are allowed because of potential violence against decomposing microorganisms.[169][170] Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.[171] Honey is forbidden, being the regurgitation of nectar by bees [172] and potentially containing eggs, excreta and dead bees. Many Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.[173]

Judaism

Main article: Jewish vegetarianism

While classical Jewish law neither requires nor prohibits the consumption of meat, Jewish vegetarians often cite Jewish principles regarding animal welfare, environmental ethics, moral character, and health as reasons for adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet.[174]

Rabbis may advocate vegetarianism or veganism primarily because of concerns about animal welfare, especially in light of the traditional prohibition on causing unnecessary "pain to living creatures" (tza'ar ba'alei hayyim).[175][176] Some Jewish vegetarian groups and activists believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.[177]

The book of Daniel starts in its first chapter with the benefits of vegetarianism. Due to its size, its late time of origin and its revealing content, the book is of particular importance for the time of the following exile, which lasts now for 2000 years and technically still goes on until the Temple in Jerusalem is rebuilt. A diet described as "pulse and water" is presented along benefits such as accordance with the biblical dietary laws, health, beauty, wisdom and vision. Vegetarianism can be seen as a safeguard around the dietary laws or the beautification of them.

Jewish vegetarianism and veganism have become especially popular among Israeli Jews. In 2016, Israel was described as "the most vegan country on Earth", as five percent of its population eschewed all animal products.[178] Interest in veganism has grown among both non-Orthodox and Orthodox Jews in Israel.[179]

Rastafari

Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are

Rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only "Ital" or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.[180] "Ital", which is derived from the word vital, means essential to human existence. Ital cooking in its strictest form prohibits the use of salt, meat (especially pork), preservatives, colorings, flavorings and anything artificial.[181] Most Rastafari are vegetarian.[182]

Sikhism

Main article: Diet in Sikhism
At the Sikh langar, all people eat a vegetarian meal as equals.

The tenets of

Kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way. This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet.[183][187]

"Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g.

Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference only for simplicity of diet. Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.[192][193] Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that it is "foolish" to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is related, only human life carries more importance: "Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?"[187] The Sikh langar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.[186][187]

Environment and diet

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism
Further information: Food vs. feed

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through

factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contribute on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."[194]

In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases. According to a 2006 report it is responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as estimated in 100-year CO2 equivalents. Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[195] This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.

Meat produced in a laboratory (called

in vitro meat) may be more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.[196] Reactions of vegetarians vary.[197] Rearing a relatively small number of grazing animals can be beneficial, as the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University reports: "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment".[198]

In May 2009, Ghent, Belgium, was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag ("vegetarian day") too.[199]

Public opinion and acceptance of meat-free food is expected to be more successful if its descriptive words focus less on the health aspects and more on the flavor.[200]

Labor conditions and diet

Some groups, such as

PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.[201] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.[202][203][204] However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.[205] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.[206] According to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world[clarification needed].[207]

Economics and diet

Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the Worldwatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."[208] According to estimates in 2016, adoption of vegetarianism would contribute substantially to global healthcare and environmental savings.[209]

Demographics

Prejudice researcher Gordon Hodson argues that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination where eating meat is held as a cultural norm.[210]

Turnover

Research suggests that, at least in the United States, vegetarianism has a high turnover rate, with less than 20% of adopters persisting for more than a year.

better source needed] A 2019 analysis found that adhering to any kind of restricted diet (gluten-free, vegetarian, kosher, teetotal) was associated with feelings of loneliness and increased social isolation.[214]

Vegetarians or vegans who adopted their diet abruptly might be more likely to eventually abandon it when compared to individuals adopting their diet gradually with incremental changes.[215]

Country-specific information

Main article: Vegetarianism by country

The rate of vegetarianism by country varies substantially from relatively low levels in countries such as the Netherlands (5%)[216] to more considerable levels in India (20–40%).[217][218] Estimates for the number of vegetarians per country can be subject to methodological difficulties, as respondents may identify as vegetarian even if they include some meat in their diet, and thus some researchers suggest the percentage of vegetarians may be significantly overestimated.[219]

Media

Vegetarianism is occasionally depicted in mass media. Some scholars have argued that mass media serves as a "source of information for individuals" interested in vegetarianism or veganism,[220] while there are "increasing social sanctions against eating meat"[221][222] Over time, societal attitudes of vegetarianism have changed, as have perceptions of vegetarianism in popular culture, leading to more "vegetarian sentiment".[223] Even so, there are still existing "meat-based" food metaphors which infuse daily speech[224] and those who are vegetarian and vegan are met with "acceptance, tolerance, or hostility" after they divulge they are vegetarian or vegan.[225] Some writers, such as John L. Cunningham, editor of the Vegetarian Resource Group's newsletter, have argued for "more sympathetic vegetarian characters in the mass media".[226]

Literature

In Western literature, vegetarianism, and topics that relate to it, have informed a "gamut of literary genres", whether

apocalypses, with authors shaped by questions about human identity and "our relation to the environment", implicating vegetarianism and veganism.[227][228] Others have pointed to the lack of "memorable characters" who are vegetarian.[229] There are also vegetarian themes in horror fiction,[230] science fiction[231] and poetry.[232]

In 1818,

Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands, and Anthony Trollope's novel titled Orley Farm. Samples also argued that vegetarianism in the Victorian era "presented a unique lifestyle choice that avoided meat but promoted an awareness of health," which initially was seen as rebellious but later became more normalized.[234]

In

feminist utopian novel, Beatrice the Sixteenth, Mary Hatherley accidentally travels through time, discovering a lost world, which is a postgender society named Armeria, with the inhabitants following a strict vegetarian diet, having ceased to slaughter animals for over a thousand years. Some reviewers of the book praised the vegetarianism of the Armerians.[235]

Donna J. Haraway, Laura Wright, and Cary Wolfe, and writers such as J. M. Coetzee.[236]

In 1997, S. Reneé Wheeler wrote in the Vegetarian Journal, saying that "finding books with vegetarian themes" is important for helping children "feel legitimate in being vegetarian."[237] In 2004, writer J. M. Coetzee argued that since the "mode of consciousness of nonhuman species is quite different from human consciousness," it is hard for writers to realize this for animals, with a "temptation to project upon them feelings and thoughts that may belong only to our own human mind and heart," and stated that reviewers have ignored the presence of animals in his books. He also stated that animals are present in his "fiction either not at all or in a merely subsidiary role" because they occupy "a subsidiary place in our lives" and argued that it is not "possible to write about the inner lives of animals in any complex way."[238]

In 2014, The New Yorker published a short story by Jonathan Lethem titled "Pending Vegan"[239] which follows "one family, a husband and wife and their four-year-old twin daughters" on a trip to SeaWorld in San Diego, California. The protagonist of the story, Paul Espeseth, renames himself "Pending Vegan" in order to acknowledge his "increasing uneasiness with the relationship between man and beast."[240]

In 2016, a three-part Korean novel by Han Kang titled The Vegetarian was published in the U.S.,[b] which focuses a woman named Young-hye, who "sees vegetarianism as a way of not inflicting harm on anything," with eating meat symbolizing human violence itself, and later identifies as a plant rather than as a human "and stops eating entirely."[241] Some argued the book was more about

mental illness than vegetarianism.[242] Others compared it to fictional works by Margaret Atwood.[243]

Television

Vegetarians, and vegetarian themes, have appeared in various TV shows, such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, True Blood, The Simpsons, King of the Hill, and South Park.[244][245][246][247]

Mr.

Vulcans do not eat meat due to a "philosophy of non-violence."[248] He is identified as vegetarian following an episode where he was "transported back to pre-civilised times" and ate meat, and in Richard Marranca, in an issue of the Vegetarian Journal, said that for Spock, like Kwai Chang Caine in Kung Fu, "vegetarianism was something authentic and taken for granted; it was the right thing to do based on compassion and logic."[249]

In 1995, The Simpsons episode "Lisa the Vegetarian" aired. Before recording their lines for the episode, showrunner David Mirkin, who had recently stopped consuming meat, gave Linda and Paul McCartney "a container of his favorite turkey substitute," with both voicing characters in an episode which focused around vegetarianism.[246] Critic Alan Siegel said that before the episode vegetarians had been portrayed as "rarely as anything but one-dimensional hippies" but that this episode was different as it was "told from the point of view of the person becoming a vegetarian." He said that the episode was one of the "first times on television that vegetarians saw an honest depiction of themselves" and of people's reaction to their dietary choices. The idea for the episode was originally proposed by David X. Cohen and the McCartneys agreed on the condition that Lisa remain a vegetarian, with both satisfied with how the episode turned out.[246] In the episode, Lisa decides to stop eating meat after bonding with a lamb at a petting zoo. Her schoolmates and family members ridicule her for her beliefs, but with the help of Apu as well as Paul and Linda McCartney, she commits to vegetarianism.[250] The staff promised that she would remain a vegetarian,[251][252] resulting in one of the few permanent character changes made in the show.[253][254] In an August 2020 interview, McCartney said that he and is wife were worried that Lisa "would be a vegetarian for a week, then Homer would persuade her to eat a hot dog," but were assured by the producers that she would remain that way, and he was delighted that they "kept their word."[255]

In September 1998, the King of the Hill episode "And They Call It Bobby Love" aired on FOX. In the episode, "Bobby has a relationship with a vegetarian named Marie. She later dumps him after he eats a steak in front of her."[245] In the March 2002 South Park episode "Fun with Veal", Stan Marsh becomes a vegetarian after he learns that veal is made of baby cows, which Cartman makes fun of. The episode ends with the boys, including Stan, getting grounded, but not before going out with their parents for burgers, meaning that Stan is no longer a vegetarian. In the DVD commentary, the creators said they wanted to balance their message of not eating baby animals, by at the same time not advocating people abstain from meat consumption altogether.[247]

Brahmajala Sutra, a Buddhist code of ethics, vegetarianism is encouraged.[260]

Other fictional characters who are vegetarians include

factory farming, saying he would refuse to voice Shaggy unless the character was vegetarian.[263][248]

Also, a Netflix original, Okja, focused on vegetarianism, while a October 2019 South Park episode, "Let Them Eat Goo", featured a vegetarian character.[265][266] Additionally, Steven Universe, the protagonist in the show Steven Universe and the limited epilogue series, Steven Universe Future, is a vegetarian. In the episode "Snow Day" of Steven Universe Future, Steven tells the Gems he lives with that he has been a vegetarian for a month, drinks protein shakes and mentions that he does "his own skincare routine."[267]

Film

In the 1999 film,

fruitarian.[268] She says she believes that "fruits and vegetables have feeling", meaning she opposes cooking them, only eating things that have "actually fallen off a tree or bush" and that are dead already, leading to what some describe as a negative depiction.[269]

In the 2000 film,

But I'm A Cheerleader, before Megan, one of the film's protagonists, is sent to a conversion therapy camp, her parents and others claim she is a lesbian because she is a vegetarian.[270] Legally Blonde, a 2001 film, also featured a vegetarian. When Elle Wood introduces herself at Harvard Law School, she describes herself and her dog as "Gemini vegetarians".[271]

In the 2018 Hollywood blockbuster, Black Panther, M’Baku (voiced by Winston Duke), the Jabari tribe leader who lives in the mountains of Wakanda, declares to a White CIA agent named Everett Ross (voiced by Martin Freeman), "if you say one more word, I'll feed you to my children!" After Everett is shaken by these words, he jokes, saying he is kidding because all those in his tribe, including himself, are vegetarians.[272] Some praised this scene for challenging a stereotype of Black culture and the perception of what vegetarians look like.[273] Duke later said that some Black outlets cooked vegan meals for him, and said that the scene is "kind of teaching kids that eating vegetables is cool," which is something he is for.[274]

Vegetarian themes have also been noted in the Twilight novel (2005–2008) and film franchise (2008–2012), The Road (2006) and The Year of the Flood (2009).[244] In March 2020, scholar Nathan Poirer reviewed Thinking Veganism in Literature and Culture: Towards a Vegan Theory, a book edited by Emelia Quinn and Benjamin Westwood, and he concluded that veganism could "infiltrate popular culture without being perceived as threatening," while noting others who contribute to the book examining vegan cinema that "challenges the normality of human supremacy by situating humans as potential prey," and stating that the essays outline ways veganism can be successful in popular culture.[275]

Other scholars noted vegetarian themes in the films The Fault in Our Stars,[276] The Princess Diaries series,[229][276] and the 2009 film, Vegetarian.[277]

See also

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External links

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