Sexually transmitted infection
Sexually transmitted infection | |
---|---|
Other names | Sexually transmitted disease (STD); Venereal disease (VD) |
Prevention | Sexual abstinence, vaccinations, condoms[2] |
Frequency | 1.1 billion (STIs other than HIV/AIDS, 2015)[3] |
Deaths | 108,000 (STIs other than HIV/AIDS, 2015)[4] |
A sexually transmitted infection (STI), also referred to as a sexually transmitted disease (STD) and the older term venereal disease (VD), is an
Bacterial STIs include
Some
In 2015, about 1.1 billion people had STIs other than HIV/AIDS.
There is often shame and stigma associated with STIs.[1] The term sexually transmitted infection is generally preferred over sexually transmitted disease or venereal disease, as it includes those who do not have symptomatic disease.[12]
Signs and symptoms
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2018) |
Not all STIs are
The presence of an STI in
Cause
Transmission
A sexually transmitted infection present in a pregnant woman may be passed on to the infant before or after birth.[15]
Risk of transmission per unprotected sexual act with an infected person[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] | |||
---|---|---|---|
Known risks | Possible | ||
Performing oral sex on a man |
| ||
Performing oral sex on a woman |
|
||
Receiving oral sex—man |
| ||
Receiving oral sex—woman |
|
||
Vaginal sex—man | |||
Vaginal sex—woman |
|
||
Anal sex—insertive | |||
Anal sex—receptive | |||
Anilingus |
|
|
Bacterial
- Chancroid (Haemophilus ducreyi)[42]
- Chlamydia (Chlamydia trachomatis)[43]
- Gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)[44]
- Granuloma inguinale or (Klebsiella granulomatis)[45]
- Mycoplasma genitalium[30][46][47][48]
- Mycoplasma hominis[29][30][31][32][49]
- Syphilis (Treponema pallidum)[50]
Viral
- Viral hepatitis (hepatitis B virus)—saliva, venereal fluids.
(Note: hepatitis A and hepatitis E are transmitted via the fecal–oral route; hepatitis C is rarely sexually transmittable,[51] and the route of transmission of hepatitis D (only if infected with B) is uncertain, but may include sexual transmission.[52][53][54]) - Herpes simplex (Herpes simplex virus1, 2) skin and mucosal, transmissible with or without visible blisters
- HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)—venereal fluids, semen, breast milk, blood
- genital warts.
- Molluscum contagiosum (molluscum contagiosum virus MCV)—close contact[56]
- Zika virus[57]
Parasites
- Scabies (Sarcoptes scabiei)
- Trichomoniasis (Trichomonas vaginalis), colloquially known as "trich"
Main types
Sexually transmitted infections include:
- Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. In women, symptoms may include abnormal vaginal discharge, burning during urination, and bleeding in between periods, although most women do not experience any symptoms.[61] Symptoms in men include pain when urinating, and abnormal discharge from their penis.[62] If left untreated in both men and women, chlamydia can infect the urinary tract and potentially lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). PID can cause serious problems during pregnancy and even has the potential to cause infertility. It can cause a woman to have a potentially deadly ectopic pregnancy, in which the egg implants outside of the uterus. However, chlamydia can be cured with antibiotics.
- The two most common forms of flu like symptoms, swollen glands, or fever. Herpes is spread through skin contact with a person infected with the virus. The virus affects the areas where it entered the body. This can occur through kissing, vaginal intercourse, oral sex or anal sex. The virus is most infectious during times when there are visible symptoms, however, those who are asymptomatic can still spread the virus through skin contact.[64] The initial infection and symptoms are usually the most severe because the body does not have any antibodies built up. After the primary attack, one might have recurring attacks that are milder or might not even have future attacks. There is no cure for the disease but there are antiviral medications that treat its symptoms and lower the risk of transmission (Valtrex). Although HSV-1 is typically the "oral" version of the virus, and HSV-2 is typically the "genital" version of the virus, a person with HSV-1 orally can transmit that virus to their partner genitally. The virus, either type, will settle into a nerve bundle either at the top of the spine, producing the "oral" outbreak, or a second nerve bundle at the base of the spine, producing the genital outbreak.
- The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common STI in the United States.[65] There are more than 40 different strands of HPV and many do not cause any health problems. In 90% of cases, the body's immune system clears the infection naturally within two years.[66] Some cases may not be cleared and can lead to genital warts (bumps around the genitals that can be small or large, raised or flat, or shaped like cauliflower) or cervical cancer and other HPV related cancers. Symptoms might not show up until advanced stages. It is important for women to get pap smears in order to check for and treat cancers. There are also two vaccines available for women (Cervarix and Gardasil) that protect against the types of HPV that cause cervical cancer. HPV can be passed through genital-to-genital contact as well as during oral sex. The infected partner might not have any symptoms.
- Gonorrhea is caused by bacterium that lives on moist mucous membranes in the urethra, vagina, rectum, mouth, throat, and eyes. The infection can spread through contact with the penis, vagina, mouth, or anus. Symptoms of gonorrhea usually appear two to five days after contact with an infected partner however, some men might not notice symptoms for up to a month. Symptoms in men include burning and pain while urinating, increased urinary frequency, discharge from the penis (white, green, or yellow in color), red or swollen urethra, swollen or tender testicles, or sore throat. Symptoms in women may include vaginal discharge, burning or itching while urinating, painful sexual intercourse, severe pain in lower abdomen (if infection spreads to fallopian tubes), or fever (if infection spreads to fallopian tubes); however, many women do not show any symptoms.[67] Antibiotic resistant strains of Gonorrhea are a significant concern, but most cases can be cured with existing antibiotics.
- Syphilis is an STI caused by a bacterium. Untreated, it can lead to complications and death.[68] Clinical manifestations of syphilis include the ulceration of the uro-genital tract, mouth or rectum; if left untreated the symptoms worsen. In recent years, the prevalence of syphilis has declined in Western Europe, but it has increased in Eastern Europe (former Soviet states). A high incidence of syphilis can be found in places such as Cameroon, Cambodia, Papua New Guinea.[69] Syphilis infections are increasing in the United States.[70]
- Trichomoniasis is a common STI that is caused by infection with a protozoan parasite called Trichomonas vaginalis.[71] Trichomoniasis affects both women and men, but symptoms are more common in women.[72] Most patients are treated with an antibiotic called metronidazole, which is very effective.[73]
- T cells. When the HIV infection becomes life-threatening, it is called AIDS. People with AIDS fall prey to opportunistic infections and die as a result.[61] When the disease was first discovered in the 1980s, those who had AIDS were not likely to live longer than a few years. There are now antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) available to treat HIV infections. There is no known cure for HIV or AIDS but the drugs help suppress the virus. By suppressing the amount of virus in the body, people can lead longer and healthier lives. Even though their virus levels may be low they can still spread the virus to others.[76]
Viruses in semen
Twenty-seven different viruses have been identified in semen. Information on whether or not transmission occurs or whether the viruses cause disease is uncertain. Some of these microbes are known to be sexually transmitted.[77]
Pathophysiology
Many STIs are (more easily) transmitted through the
Some STIs such as HIV can be transmitted from mother to child either during pregnancy or breastfeeding.[79][80] Healthcare professionals suggest
It is possible to be an
Diagnosis
STI tests may be used for a number of reasons:
- as a diagnostic testto determine the cause of symptoms or illness
- as a screening test to detect asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections
- as a check that prospective sexual partners are free of disease before they engage in sex without fluid bonding, or for procreation).
- as a check prior to or during pregnancy, to prevent harm to the baby
- as a check after birth, to check that the baby has not caught an STI from the mother
- to prevent the use of infected donated blood or organs
- as part of the process of contact tracing from a known infected individual
- as part of mass epidemiologicalsurveillance
Early identification and treatment results in less chance to spread disease, and for some conditions may improve the outcomes of treatment. There is often a window period after initial infection during which an STI test will be negative. During this period, the infection may be transmissible. The duration of this period varies depending on the infection and the test. Diagnosis may also be delayed by reluctance of the infected person to seek a medical professional. One report indicated that people turn to the Internet rather than to a medical professional for information on STIs to a higher degree than for other sexual problems.[82]
Classification
Until the 1990s,[citation needed] STIs were commonly known as venereal diseases, an antiquated euphemism derived from the Latin venereus, being the adjectival form of Venus, the Roman goddess of love.[83] However, in the post-classical education era the euphemistic effect was entirely lost, and the common abbreviation "VD" held only negative connotations. Other former euphemisms for STIs include "blood diseases" and "social diseases".[84] The present euphemism is in the use of the initials "STI" rather than in the words they represent. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the more inclusive term sexually transmitted infection since 1999.[12] Public health officials originally introduced the term sexually transmitted infection, which clinicians are increasingly using alongside the term sexually transmitted disease in order to distinguish it from the former.[citation needed]
Prevention
Strategies for reducing STI risk include: vaccination, mutual monogamy, reducing the number of sexual partners, and abstinence.[85] Also potentially helpful is behavioral counseling for sexually active adolescents and for adults who are at increased risk.[86] Such interactive counseling, which can be resource-intensive, is directed at a person's risk, the situations in which risk occurs, and the use of personalized goal-setting strategies.[87]
The most effective way to prevent sexual transmission of STIs is to avoid contact of body parts or fluids which can lead to transfer with an infected partner. Not all sexual activities involve contact: cybersex, phone sex or masturbation from a distance are methods of avoiding contact. Proper use of condoms reduces contact and risk. Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure, some disease transmission may occur even with a condom.[88]
Both partners can get tested for STIs before initiating sexual contact, or before resuming contact if a partner engaged in contact with someone else. Many infections are not detectable immediately after exposure, so enough time must be allowed between possible exposures and testing for the tests to be accurate. Certain STIs, particularly certain persistent viruses like HPV, may be impossible to detect.[medical citation needed]
Some treatment facilities use in-home test kits and have the person return the test for follow-up. Other facilities strongly encourage that those previously infected return to ensure that the infection has been eliminated. Novel strategies to foster re-testing have been the use of text messaging and email as reminders. These types of reminders are now used in addition to phone calls and letters.
Vaccines
Vaccines are available that protect against some viral STIs, such as hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and some types of HPV.[90] Vaccination before initiation of sexual contact is advised to assure maximal protection. The development of vaccines to protect against gonorrhea is ongoing.[91]
Condoms
Condoms and female condoms only provide protection when used properly as a barrier, and only to and from the area that they cover. Uncovered areas are still susceptible to many STIs.[citation needed]
In the case of HIV, sexual transmission routes almost always involve the penis, as HIV cannot spread through unbroken skin; therefore, properly shielding the penis with a properly worn condom from the vagina or anus effectively stops HIV transmission. An infected fluid to broken skin borne direct transmission of HIV would not be considered "sexually transmitted", but can still theoretically occur during sexual contact. This can be avoided simply by not engaging in sexual contact when presenting open, bleeding wounds.[citation needed]
Other STIs, even viral infections, can be prevented with the use of latex, polyurethane or polyisoprene condoms as a barrier. Some microorganisms and viruses are small enough to pass through the pores in natural skin condoms but are still too large to pass through latex or synthetic condoms.[citation needed]
Proper male condom usage entails:[citation needed]
- Not putting the condom on too tight at the tip by leaving 1.5 centimetres (0.6 in) room for ejaculation. Putting the condom on too tightly can and often does lead to failure.
- Wearing a condom too loose can defeat the barrier
- Avoiding inverting or spilling a condom once worn, whether it has ejaculate in it or not
- If a user attempts to unroll the condom, but realizes they have it on the wrong side, then this condom may not be effective
- Being careful with the condom if handling it with long nails
- Avoiding the use of oil-based lubricants (or anything with oil in it) with latex condoms, as oil can eat holes into them
- Using flavored condoms for oral sex only, as the sugar in the flavoring can lead to yeast infections if used to penetrate
In order to best protect oneself and the partner from STIs, the old condom and its contents are to be treated as infectious and properly disposed of. A new condom is used for each act of intercourse, as multiple usages increase the chance of breakage, defeating the effectiveness as a barrier.[citation needed]
In the case of female condoms, the device consists of two rings, one in each terminal portion. The larger ring should fit snugly over the cervix and the smaller ring remains outside the vagina, covering the vulva. This system provides some protection of the external genitalia.[92]
Other
The cap was developed after the cervical diaphragm. Both cover the cervix and the main difference between the diaphragm and the cap is that the latter must be used only once, using a new one in each sexual act. The diaphragm, however, can be used more than once. These two devices partially protect against STIs (they do not protect against HIV).[93]
Researchers had hoped that nonoxynol-9, a vaginal microbicide would help decrease STI risk. Trials, however, have found it ineffective[94] and it may put women at a higher risk of HIV infection.[95] There is evidence that vaginal dapivirine probably reduces HIV in women who have sex with men, other types of vaginal microbicides have not demonstrated effectiveness for HIV or STIs.[96]
There is little evidence that school-based interventions such as sexual and reproductive health education programmes on contraceptive choices and condoms are effective on improving the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents. Incentive-based programmes may reduce adolescent pregnancy but more data is needed to confirm this.[97]
Screening
Specific age groups, persons who participate in risky sexual behavior, or those have certain health conditions may require screening. The CDC recommends that sexually active women under the age of 25 and those over 25 at risk should be screened for chlamydia and gonorrhea yearly. Appropriate times for screening are during regular pelvic examinations and preconception evaluations. Screening can be performed:
- to assess the presence of infection and prevent tubal infertility in women
- during the initial evaluation before infertility treatment
- to identify HIV infection
- for men who have sex with men
- for those who may have been exposed to hepatitis C
- for HCV[99]
Management
In the case of rape, the person can be treated prophylacticly with antibiotics.[100]
An option for treating partners of patients (
Epidemiology
no data < 60 60–120 120–180 180–240 240–300 300–360 | 360–420 420–480 480–540 540–600 600–1000 > 1000 |
In 2008, it was estimated that 500 million people were infected with either syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia or trichomoniasis.
In 2010, 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted infections occurred in women in the United States.[5] A 2008 CDC study found that 25–40% of U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted infection.[105][106] Out of a population of almost 295,270,000 people[107] there were 110 million new and existing cases of eight sexually transmitted infections.[108]
Over 400,000 sexually transmitted infections were reported in England in 2017, about the same as in 2016, but there were more than 20% increases in confirmed cases of gonorrhoea and syphilis. Since 2008 syphilis cases have risen by 148%, from 2,874 to 7,137, mostly among men who have sex with men. The number of first cases of genital warts in 2017 among girls aged 15–17 years was just 441, 90% less than in 2009 – attributed to the national HPV immunisation programme.[109]
History
The first well-recorded European outbreak of what is now known as syphilis occurred in 1494 when it broke out among French troops besieging
Prior to the invention of modern medicines, sexually transmitted infections were generally incurable, and treatment was limited to treating the symptoms of the infection. The first voluntary hospital for STIs was founded in 1746 at London Lock Hospital.[121] Treatment was not always voluntary: in the second half of the 19th century, the Contagious Diseases Acts were used to arrest suspected prostitutes. In 1924, a number of states concluded the Brussels Agreement, whereby states agreed to provide free or low-cost medical treatment at ports for merchant seamen with STIs. A proponent of these approaches was Nora Wattie, OBE, Venereal Diseases Officer in Glasgow from 1929, encouraged contact tracing and volunteering for treatment, rather than the prevailing more judgemental view and published her own research on improving sex education and maternity care.[122]
The first effective treatment for a sexually transmitted infection was salvarsan, a treatment for syphilis. With the discovery of antibiotics, a large number of sexually transmitted infections became easily curable, and this, combined with effective public health campaigns against STIs, led to a public perception during the 1960s and 1970s that they have ceased to be a serious medical threat.[citation needed]
During this period, the importance of contact tracing in treating STIs was recognized. By tracing the sexual partners of infected individuals, testing them for infection, treating the infected and tracing their contacts, in turn, STI clinics could effectively suppress infections in the general population.[citation needed]
In the 1980s, first genital herpes and then
-
World War II–era British poster urging men to be tested for sexually transmitted infections before marriage
-
U.S. propaganda poster targeted at World War II servicemen appealed to their patriotism in urging them to protect themselves. The text at the bottom of the poster reads, "You can't beat the Axis if you get VD".
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) Fact sheet N°110". who.int. November 2013. Archived from the original on 25 November 2014. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
- ^ a b c "How You Can Prevent Sexually Transmitted Diseases". cdc.gov. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 31 May 2016. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2017. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
- ^ PMID 27733282.
- ^ PMID 27733281.
- ^ a b "Sexually transmitted infections". womenshealth.gov. 22 February 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ISBN 978-1-351-18825-8. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-323-08692-9. Archivedfrom the original on 1 December 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-7234-3601-0.
- ISBN 978-92-3-100259-5.
- ^ a b "STD Trends in the United States: 2010 National Data for Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and Syphilis". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 9 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
- ISBN 978-3-642-14663-3. Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-92-4-154626-3. Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 December 2014.
- ^ "Male STI check-up video". Channel 4. 2008. Archived from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 22 January 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-07-171672-7.[page needed]
- PMID 28481770.
- ^ PMID 9634339.
- ^ a b c Gillisons M (2007). "HPV Infection Linked to Throat Cancers". Johns Hopkins Medicine. Archived from the original on 6 September 2013.
- ^ a b c d e Hoare AN (2010). Mathematical models of HIV epidemics in Australia and South East Asia (Ph.D thesis). UNSW Sydney. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012.
- ^ a b c d e "Australasian contact tracing manual". Australasian Society for HIV, Viral Hepatitis and Sexual Health Medicine. Archived from the original on 1 March 2011.
Specific infections where contact tracing is generally recommended
- ^ S2CID 45262002.
- ^ PMID 5416250.
- ^ PMID 19198042.
- ^ PMID 16421235.
- ^ PMID 6417362.
- ^ "STD Risks Chart". Department of Public Health, City & County of San Francisco. 2011. Archived from the original on 16 August 2011.
- ^ PMID 20139750.
- ^ Bryan C (2011). "Infectious Disease Chapter Eight Sexually Transmitted Diseases". Microbiology and Immunology On-line. University of South Carolina School of Medicine. Archived from the original on 24 June 2014.
- ^ Pearson R (2007). "Pinworm Infection". Merck Manual Home Health Handbook. Archived from the original on 31 October 2013.
- ^ PMID 24986642.
- ^ PMID 25614838.
- ^ PMID 15472322.
- ^ PMID 19261782.
- ^ a b c d "Mycoplasma Infections". WebMD. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
- ^ "Diseases Characterized by Urethritis and Cervicitis – 2015 STD Treatment Guidelines". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
- PMID 25900174.
- PMID 28838078.
- ^ PMID 24390920.
- ^ PMID 20706675.
- ^ "Giardia, Epidemiology & Risk Factors". Center For Disease Control. 13 July 2012. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
- ^ "Hepatitis A, Division of Viral Hepatitis". Center For Disease Control. 31 May 2015. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
- ^ "Shigella Infections among Gay & Bisexual Men". Center For Disease Control. 23 April 2015. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
- ^ "Chancroid". Lecturio. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Chlamydia". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Gonorrhea". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- PMID 12473810.
- PMID 23886122.
- PMID 21637847.
- S2CID 207218803.
- PMID 8909826.
- ^ "Syphilis". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- PMID 16888612.
- S2CID 36698036.
- PMID 14708706.
- PMID 15481349.
- PMID 26691673.
- ^ "Molluscum Contagiosum". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Zika Virus". CDC. 5 November 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
- OCLC 779244257.
- ^ "CDC - Lice". CDC - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2 May 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "Lice: Pubic". CDC – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2 May 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b King, B. (2009). Human Sexuality Today (Sixth ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc.
- ^ "Chlamydia Infections: MedlinePlus". Nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ "The Basics of Genital Herpes". Archived from the original on 22 September 2014.
- ^ "Herpes". Avert.org. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ "Human Papillomavirus (HPV) | Overview". FamilyDoctor.org. 1 December 2010. Archived from the original on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ "STD Facts – Human papillomavirus (HPV)". cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia: Gonorrhea
- ^ "STD Facts – Syphilis". cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 11 February 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ "Syphilis". Who.int. Archived from the original on 30 October 2006. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- PMID 25387188.
- ^ "STD Facts – Trichomoniasis". Cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ "Trichomoniasis: MedlinePlus". Nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2 March 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ "Trichomoniasis – NHS Choices". Nhs.uk. 27 February 2012. Archived from the original on 11 February 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ "HIV/AIDS". Mayo Clinic.com. 11 August 2012. Archived from the original on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ "AIDS". Avert.org. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ "HIV/AIDS Treatment". Niaid.nih.gov. 3 June 2009. Archived from the original on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- PMID 29048276.
- ^ K. Madhav Naidu. Community Health Nursing, Gen Next Publications, 2009, p.248
- ^ "STDs during Pregnancy - CDC Fact Sheet (Detailed)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8 June 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
- ^ "Overview: Sexually Transmitted Infections". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Pelvic Inflammatory Disease". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- PMID 21454267.
- ^ "Venereal". dictionary.reference.com. Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-19-506622-7.
- ^ "How You Can Prevent Sexually Transmitted Diseases". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 31 March 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ "Draft Recommendation Statement: Sexually Transmitted Infections: Behavioral Counseling - US Preventive Services Task Force". www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
- ^ PMID 26042815.
- ^ Villhauer T (20 May 2005). "Condoms Preventing HPV?". University of Iowa Student Health Service/Health Iowa. Archived from the original on 14 March 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
- PMID 25759476.
- ^ "Men Who Have Sex with Men | Populations and Settings | Division of Viral Hepatitis | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 31 May 2015. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ PMID 26579097.
- ^ "Condón femenino". Planned Parenthood.
- ^ "Mto2 anticonceptivos y de prevencin de ITS | Es cosa de 2. Campaa prevencin embarazos no deseados". métodos contraceptivos y de prevención de las ITS. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- PMID 12519623.
- ISBN 978-1-4486-6472-6.[page needed]
- PMID 33719075.
- PMID 27824221.
- PMID 24759690.
- ^ a b c "Screening for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement". USPSTF. Archived from the original on 9 October 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-58110-966-5.
- ^ "Expedited Partner Therapy in the Management of Sexually Transmitted Diseases" (PDF). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention. 2 February 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2009.
- PMID 24092529.
- ^ "WHO Disease and injury country estimates". World Health Organization. 2004. Archived from the original on 11 November 2009. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
- PMID 25530442.
- ^ "Altman LK (12 March 2008). "Sex Infections Found in Quarter of Teenage Girls". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 June 2017.
- ^ Tanner L (11 March 2008). "CDC study says at least 1 in 4 teen girls has a sexually transmitted disease; HPV most common". The Oklahoman. Archived from the original on 20 April 2010. (the last year these specifics were provided by the CDC).
- ^ "State Health Facts". KFF.org. Kaiser Family Foundation. 4 December 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
- ^ Gholipour B (6 October 2014). "Hidden STD Epidemic: 110 Million Infections in the US". Live Science. Future US, Inc. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
- ^ "Over 400,000 sexually transmitted infections reported in England in 2017, PHE report reveals". Pharmaceutical Journal. 6 June 2018. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
- ^ UNAIDS, WHO (December 2007). "2007 AIDS epidemic update" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 12 March 2008.
- ^ "HIV in the United States: At A Glance". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 13 July 2014.
- ^ "AIDS In Black America: A Public Health Crisis". NPR. 5 July 2012. Archived from the original on 11 July 2015.
- ^ "Hepatitis: Type B (caused by hepatitis B virus)". Minnesota Department of Health. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010.
- ^ "Hepatitis B". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 15 March 2010.
- ^ "World Hepatitis Day 2012". WHO. 2012. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012.
- ISBN 978-3-540-19844-4.
- PMID 18235852.
- ^ Choi CQ (19 January 2022). "Columbus May Have Brought Syphilis to Europe". Live Science.
- ^ CBC News Staff (January 2008). "Study traces origins of syphilis in Europe to New World". Archived from the original on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
- ISBN 978-84-8306-667-6.
- ^ "London Lock Hospital records". AIM25 Archives in London and the M25 area. Archived from the original on 10 July 2006.
- )
- PMID 17978186.
Further reading
- Aral SO (2008). Behavioral Interventions for Prevention and Control of Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Springer Singapore Pte. Limited. ISBN 978-0-387-85768-8.
- Faro S (2003). Sexually transmitted diseases in women. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-397-51303-1.
- Ford CA, Bowers ES (2009). Living with Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-7672-7.
Sexually transmitted disease.
- Edmund O (1911). . In Chisholm H (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 983–85. This provides an overview of pre-modern medicine's approach to the diseases.
- Sehgal VN (2003). Sexually Transmitted Diseases (4th ed.). Jaypee Bros. Medical Publishers. ISBN 978-81-8061-105-6.
- Shoquist J, Stafford D (2003). The encyclopedia of sexually transmitted diseases. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-4881-6.
- Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, Johnston CM, Muzny CA, Park I, et al. (July 2021). "Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021" (PDF). MMWR Recomm Rep. 70 (4): 1–187. PMID 34292926.
External links
- Sexually transmitted infection at Curlie
- CDC Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010
- STD photo library Archived 21 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine at Dermnet
- UNFPA: Breaking the Cycle of Sexually Transmitted Infections at UNFPA
- STDs In Color: Sexually Transmitted Disease Facts and Photos
- CDC: Sexually transmitted diseases in the U.S.
- STI Watch: World Health Organization