Venus (mythology)
Venus | |
---|---|
Goddess of love, beauty, desire, sex, fertility, prosperity and victory | |
Member of Vinalia Urbana | |
Personal information | |
Parents | Caelus |
Consort | Mars and Vulcan |
Children | Cupid (in later tradition); Aeneas (fathered by Anchises in Virgil's Aeneid) |
Equivalents | |
Greek equivalent | Aphrodite |
Venus (/ˈviːnəs/)[a] is a Roman goddess, whose functions encompass love, beauty, desire, sex, fertility, prosperity, and victory. In Roman mythology, she was the ancestor of the Roman people through her son, Aeneas, who survived the fall of Troy and fled to Italy. Julius Caesar claimed her as his ancestor. Venus was central to many religious festivals, and was revered in Roman religion under numerous cult titles.
The Romans adapted the myths and iconography of her Greek counterpart Aphrodite for Roman art and Latin literature. In the later classical tradition of the West, Venus became one of the most widely referenced deities of Greco-Roman mythology as the embodiment of love and sexuality. She is usually depicted
Etymology
The Latin theonym Venus and the common noun venus ('love, charm') stem from a Proto-Italic form reconstructed as *wenos- ('desire'), itself from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *wenh₁-os ('desire'; cf. Messapic Venas, Old Indic vánas 'desire').[2][3]
Derivatives include venustus ('attractive, charming'), venustās ('charm, grace'), venerius ('of Venus, erotic'), venerāre ('to adore, revere, honor, venerate, worship'), and venerātiō ('adoration').[2] Venus is also cognate with Latin venia ('favour, permission') and vēnor ('to hunt') through to common PIE root *wenh₁- ('to strive for, wish for, desire, love').[2][4]
Origins
Venus has been described as perhaps "the most original creation of the Roman pantheon",[6]: 146 and "an ill-defined and assimilative" native goddess, combined "with a strange and exotic Aphrodite".[b] Her cults may represent the religiously legitimate charm and seduction of the divine by mortals, in contrast to the formal, contractual relations between most members of Rome's official pantheon and the state, and the unofficial, illicit manipulation of divine forces through magic.[6]: 13–64 [8] The ambivalence of her persuasive functions has been perceived in the relationship of the root *wenos- with its Latin derivative venenum ('poison'; from *wenes-no 'love drink' or 'addicting'),[9] in the sense of "a charm, magic philtre".[10]
Venus seems to have had no origin myth until her association with Greek Aphrodite. Venus-Aphrodite emerged, already in adult form, from the
Prospective brides offered Venus a gift "before the wedding"; the nature of the gift, and its timing, are unknown. The wedding ceremony itself, and the state of lawful marriage, belonged to
Epithets
Like other major Roman deities, Venus was given a number of epithets that referred to her different cult aspects, roles, and her functional similarities to other deities. Her "original powers seem to have been extended largely by the fondness of the Romans for folk-etymology, and by the prevalence of the religious idea nomen-omen which sanctioned any identifications made in this way."[7]: 457 [c]
Venus Acidalia, in
Venus Anadyomene (Venus "rising from the sea"), based on a once-famous painting by the Greek artist Apelles showing the birth of Aphrodite from sea-foam, fully adult and supported by a more-than-lifesized scallop shell. The Italian Renaissance painter Sandro Botticelli used the type in his The Birth of Venus. Other versions of Venus' birth show her standing on land or shoreline, wringing the sea-water from her hair.[17]
Venus Barbata ("Bearded Venus"), mentioned in
Venus Caelestis (Celestial or Heavenly Venus), used from the 2nd century AD for Venus as an aspect of a syncretised supreme goddess. Venus Caelestis is the earliest known Roman recipient of a taurobolium (a form of bull sacrifice), performed at her shrine in Pozzuoli on 5 October 134. This form of the goddess, and the taurobolium, are associated with the "Syrian Goddess", understood as a late equivalent to Astarte, or the Roman Magna Mater, the latter being another supposedly Trojan "Mother of the Romans", as well as "Mother of the Gods".[22]
Venus Calva ("Venus the bald one"), a legendary form of Venus, attested only by post-Classical Roman writings which offer several traditions to explain this appearance and epithet. In one, it commemorates the virtuous offer by Roman matrons of their own hair to make bowstrings during a siege of Rome. In another, king Ancus Marcius' wife and other Roman women lost their hair during an epidemic; in hope of its restoration, unafflicted women sacrificed their own hair to Venus.[6]: 83–89 [d]
Venus Cloacina ("Venus the Purifier"); a fusion of Venus with the Etruscan water goddess Cloacina, who had an ancient shrine above the outfall of the Cloaca Maxima, originally a stream, later covered over to function as Rome's main sewer. The rites conducted at the shrine were probably meant to purify the culvert's polluted waters and noxious airs.[25][26] In some traditions, Titus Tatius was responsible for the introduction of lawful marriage to Rome, and Venus-Cloacina promoted, protected and purified sexual intercourse between married couples.[27]
Venus Erycina ("
: 80, 83Venus Euploia (Venus of the "fair voyage"), also known as Venus Pontia (Venus of the Sea"), because she smooths the waves for mariners. She is probably based on the influential image of Aphrodite by Praxiteles, once housed in a temple by the sea but now lost. Most copies of its Venus image would have been supported by dolphins, and worn diadems and carved veils, inferring her birth from sea-foam, and a consequent identity as Queen of the Sea, and patron of sailors and navigation. Roman copies would have embellished baths and gymnasiums.[31][17]
Venus Frutis honoured by all the Latins with a federal cult at the temple named Frutinal in Lavinium.[32][e] Inscriptions found at Lavinium attest the presence of federal cults, without giving precise details.[f]
Venus Felix ("Lucky Venus"), probably a traditional epithet, combining aspects of Venus and Fortuna, goddess of both good and bad fortune and personification of luck, whose iconography includes the rudder of a ship, found in some Pompeian examples of the regal Venus Physica. A form of Venus usually identified as Venus Felix was adopted by the dictator Sulla to legitimise his victories over his domestic and foreign opponents during Rome's late Republican civil and foreign wars; Rives finds it very unlikely that Sulla would have imposed this humiliating connection on unwilling or conquered domestic territories once allied to Samnium, such as Pompei.[35] The emperor Hadrian built a temple to Venus Felix et Roma Aeterna on the Via Sacra. The same epithet is used for a specific sculpture at the Vatican Museums.
Venus Heliopolitana ("Venus of
Venus Libertina ("Venus the Freedwoman"), probably arising through the semantic similarity and cultural links between libertina (as "a free woman") and lubentina (possibly meaning "pleasurable" or "passionate"). Further titles or variants acquired by Venus through the same process, or through orthographic variance, include Libentia, Lubentina, and Lubentini. Venus Libitina links Venus to a patron-goddess of funerals and undertakers, Libitina, who also became synonymous with death; a temple was dedicated to Venus Libitina in Libitina's grove on the Esquiline Hill, "hardly later than 300 BC".[g]
Venus Murcia ("Venus of the Myrtle"), merging Venus with the little-known deity
Venus Obsequens ("Indulgent Venus": 89
Venus Physica: Venus as a universal, natural creative force that informs the physical world. She is addressed as "Alma Venus" ("Mother Venus") by
Venus Physica Pompeiana was Pompeii's protective goddess, antedating Sulla's imposition of a colonia named
Venus Urania ("Heavenly Venus"), used as the title of a book by Basilius von Ramdohr, a relief by Pompeo Marchesi, and a painting by Christian Griepenkerl. (cf. Aphrodite Urania)
Venus Verticordia ("Venus the Changer of Hearts"). See #Festivals and Veneralia.
Venus Victrix ("Venus the Victorious"), a Romanised aspect of the armed Aphrodite that Greeks had inherited from the East, where the goddess
Cult history and temples
The first known temple to Venus was
In 217 BC, in the early stages of the
The Capitoline cult to Venus seems to have been reserved to higher status Romans. A separate cult to Venus Erycina as a fertility deity,
Towards the end of the Roman Republic, some leading Romans laid personal claims to Venus' favour. The general and dictator Sulla adopted Felix ("Lucky") as a surname, acknowledging his debt to heaven-sent good fortune and his particular debt to Venus Felix, for his extraordinarily fortunate political and military career.[l] His protégé Pompey competed for Venus' support, dedicating (in 55 BC) a large temple to Venus Victrix as part of his lavishly appointed new theatre, and celebrating his triumph of 54 BC with coins that showed her crowned with triumphal laurels.[50]: 22–23
Pompey's erstwhile friend, ally, and later opponent
Vitruvius recommends that any new temple to Venus be sited according to rules laid down by the Etruscan haruspices, and built "near to the gate" of the city, where it would be less likely to contaminate "the matrons and youth with the influence of lust". He finds the Corinthian style, slender, elegant, enriched with ornamental leaves and surmounted by volutes, appropriate to Venus' character and disposition.[n] Vitruvius recommends the widest possible spacing between the temple columns, producing a light and airy space, and he offers Venus's temple in Caesar's forum as an example of how not to do it; the densely spaced, thickset columns darken the interior, hide the temple doors and crowd the walkways, so that matrons who wish to honour the goddess must enter her temple in single file, rather than arm-in arm.[o]
In 135 AD the Emperor
Festivals
Venus was offered
A festival of Venus Genetrix (September 26) was held under state auspices from 46 BC at
Mythology and literature
As with most major gods and goddesses in
The Cupids
Cupid (lust or desire) and Amor (affectionate love) are taken to be different names for the same Roman love-god, the son of Venus, fathered by
At Elis, and in
Ovid's Fasti, Book 4, invokes Venus not by name but as "Mother of the Twin Loves", the gemini amores.[aa] "Amor" is the Latin name preferred by Roman poets and literati for the personification of "kindly" love. Where Cupid (lust) can be imperious, cruel, prone to mischief or even war-like, Amor softly persuades. Cato the Elder, having a Stoic's outlook, sees Cupid as a deity of greed and blind passion, morally inferior to Amor. The Roman playwright Plautus, however, has Venus, Cupid and Amor working together.[72]
In Roman cult inscriptions and theology, "Amor" is rare, and "Cupido" relatively common. No Roman temples seem dedicated to Cupid alone but the joint dedication formula Venus Cupidoque ("Venus and Cupid") is evidence of his cult, shared with Venus at her Temple just outside the Colline Gate and elsewhere. He would also have featured in many private household cults. In private and public areas alike, statues of Venus and Mars attended by Cupid, or Venus, Cupid and minor erotes were sometimes donated by wealthy sponsors, to serve both religious and artistic purposes.[74][75] Cupid's roles in literary myth are usually limited to actions on behalf of Venus; in Cupid and Psyche, one of the stories within The Golden Ass, by the Roman author Apuleius, the plot and its resolution are driven by Cupid's love for Psyche ("soul"), his filial disobedience, and his mother's envy.[72]
Iconography
Signs, context and symbols
Images of Venus have been found in domestic murals, mosaics and household shrines (lararia). Petronius, in his Satyricon, places an image of Venus among the Lares (household gods) of the freedman Trimalchio's lararium.[76]
The Venus types known as Venus Pompeiana ("Venus of Pompeii") and Venus Pescatrice ("Venus the Fisher-woman") are almost exclusive to Pompeii. Both forms of Venus are represented within Pompeian homes of the well-off, with Venus Pompeiana more commonly found in formal reception spaces, typically depicted in full regalia, draped with a mantle, standing rigidly upright with her right arm across her chest. Images of Venus Pescatrice tend to be more playful, usually found in less formal and less public "non-reception" areas: here, she usually holds a fishing rod, and sits amidst landscape scenery, accompanied by at least one cupid.[77]
Venus'
Myrtle was thought a particularly potent aphrodisiac. As goddess of love and sex, Venus played an essential role at Roman prenuptial rites and wedding nights, so myrtle and roses were used in bridal bouquets. Marriage itself was not a seduction but a lawful condition, under Juno's authority; so myrtle was excluded from the bridal crown. Venus was also a patron of the ordinary, everyday wine drunk by most Roman men and women; the seductive powers of wine were well known. In the rites to Bona Dea, a goddess of female chastity,[ad] Venus, myrtle and anything male were not only excluded, but unmentionable. The rites allowed women to drink the strongest, sacrificial wine, otherwise reserved for the Roman gods and Roman men; the women euphemistically referred to it as "honey". Under these special circumstances, they could get virtuously, religiously drunk on strong wine, safe from male intrusion and Venus' temptations. Outside of this context, ordinary wine (that is, Venus' wine) tinctured with myrtle oil was thought particularly suitable for women.[80]
Venus' long association with wine reflects the inevitable connections between wine, intoxication and sex, expressed in the proverbial phrase
Roman generals given an ovation, a lesser form of Roman triumph, wore a myrtle crown, perhaps to purify themselves and their armies of blood-guilt. The ovation ceremony was assimilated to Venus Victrix ("Victorious Venus"), who was held to have granted and purified its relatively "easy" victory.[82][50]: 63, 113
Classical art
Roman and Hellenistic art produced many variations on the goddess, often based on the
Examples include:
- Venus de Milo (130 BC)
- Venus Pudica
- Esquiline Venus
- Venus Felix
- Venus of Arles
- Venus Anadyomene (also here)
- Venus, Pan and Eros
- Venus Genetrix
- Venus of Capua
- Venus Kallipygos
Post-classical culture
Medieval art
Venus is remembered in De Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 1361–62. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.[83]
Art in the classical tradition
Venus became a popular subject of painting and sculpture during the Renaissance period in Europe. As a "classical" figure for whom nudity was her natural state, it was socially acceptable to depict her unclothed. As the goddess of sexuality, a degree of erotic beauty in her presentation was justified, which appealed to many artists and their patrons. Over time, venus came to refer to any artistic depiction in post-classical art of a nude woman, even when there was no indication that the subject was the goddess.
- The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)(c. 1485)
- Sleeping Venus (c. 1501)
- Venus of Urbino (1538)
- Venus with a Mirror (c. 1555)
- Rokeby Venus (1647–1651)
- Olympia (1863)
- The Birth of Venus (Cabanel) (1863)
- The Birth of Venus (Bouguereau) (1879)
- Venus of Cherchell, Gsell museum in Algeria
- Venus Victrix, and Venus Italica by Antonio Canova
In the field of
Gallery
-
Venus with a Mirror (c. 1555) by Titian
-
Venus by Frans Floris, Hallwyl Museum
-
Venus and Cupid, painting (c. 1650–1700) by Peter Paul Rubens
-
Mars Being Disarmed by Venus (1822–1825) by Jacques-Louis David
-
Nell Gwynne, one of the long-time mistresses of King Charles II of England, as Venus with her son as Cupid (c. 1665) by Peter Lely
-
Tannhäuser in the Venusberg (1901) byJohn Collier
-
Russian Venus (1926) by Boris Kustodiev
-
Iris presenting the wounded Venus to Mars by Sir George Hayter, 1820 – Ante Library, Chatsworth House
-
Anonymous (France) after François Boucher, "Venus and Cupid on a Dolphin", 19th century, lithograph
See also
- History of nude art
- Love goddess
- Planets in astrology#Venus
- Hottentot Venus
- Sailor Venus
- Venus (planet)
- Venus symbol
Notes
- E. sativa, which the Romans considered an aphrodisiac.
- ^ For further exposition of nomen-omen (or nomen est omen) see[15]
- ^ Ashby (1929) finds the existence of a temple to Venus Calva "very doubtful"; see[23]
- ^ "At the midway between Ostia and Antium lies Lavinium that has a sanctuary of Aphrodite common to all Latin nations, but which is under the care of the Ardeans, who have entrusted the task to intendants".[33]
- ^ "Sp. Turrianus Proculus Gellianus ... pater patratus ... Lavinium sacrorum principiorum p(opuli) R(omani) Quirt(ium) nominisque Latini qui apud Laurentis coluntur".[34]
- ^ Eden (1963)[7]: 457 states that Varro rationalises the connections as "lubendo libido, libidinosus ac Venus Libentina et Libitina"[38]
- ^ Schilling (1954)[6]: 87 suggests that Venus began as an abstraction of personal qualities, later assuming Aphrodite's attributes.
- ^ Her Sicillian form probably combined elements of Aphrodite and a more warlike Carthaginian-Phoenician Astarte
- Magna Mater, who also had mythical links to Troy. See also[30]: 80.
- ^ The aristocratic ideology of an increasingly Hellenised Venus is "summarized by the famous invocation to Venus Physica in Lucretius' poem."[54]
- ^ Plutarch's original Greek translates this adopted surname, Felix, as Epaphroditus (Aphrodite's beloved); see[55]
- Roman Imperial cult.[56]
- ^ Immediately after these remarks, Vitruvius prescribes the best positioning for temples to Venus' two divine consorts, Vulcan and Mars. Vulcan's should be outside the city, to reduce the dangers of fire, which is his element; Mars' too should be outside the city, so that "no armed frays may disturb the peace of the citizens, and that this divinity may, moreover, be ready to preserve them from their enemies and the perils of war."[57]
- ^ The widely spaced, open style preferred by Vitruvius is eustylos. The densely pillared style he criticises is pycnostylos.[58]
- ^ The origin is unknown, but it might derive from Apru, an Etruscan form of Greek Aphrodite's name.[60]
- ^ Either the Sibylline Books, per Valerius Maximus. Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX [Nine books of memborable deeds and sayings]. 8.15.12; or the Cumaean Sibyl, per Ovid. Fasti. 4.155–62.
- ^ Romans considered personal ethics or mentality to be functions of the heart.
- ^ Vegetable-growers may have been involved in the dedications as a corporate guild.[7]: 451
- ^ For associations of kind between Roman deities and their sacrificial victims, see Victima.
- Varro explicitly denies that the festival belongs to Venus;[65] that implies he was aware of opposite scholarly and / or commonplace opinion. Lipka (2009) offers this apparent contradiction as an example of two Roman cults that offer "complementary functional foci".[52]: 42
- ^ Sulla may have set some form of precedent, but there is no evidence that he built her a Temple. Caesar's associations with Venus as both a personal and state goddess may also have been propagated in the Roman provinces.[35]
- Didoholds Cupid disguised as Ascanius in her lap as she falls in love with Aeneas.
- ^ Cicero, On the nature of the Gods, 3.59 - 3.60; "The first Venus is the daughter of the Sky and the Day; I have seen her temple at Elis. The second was engendered from the sea‑foam, and as we are told became the mother by Mercury of the second Cupid. The third is the daughter of Jupiter and Dione, who wedded Vulcan, but who is said to have been the mother of Anteros by Mars. The fourth was conceived of Syria and Cyprus and is called Astarte; it is recorded that she married Adonis."
- ^ Venus as a guide and protector of Aeneas and his descendants is a frequent motif in the Aeneid. See discussion throughout Williams (2003).[67]
- ^ Cicero presents Anteros as a "third Cupid", fathered by Mars and birthed by a "third Venus", the huntress Diana (more usually described as virgin). See Cicero, On the nature of the Gods, 3.59-3.60
- ^ Ovid, Fasti, 4, 1: Amores, 3. 15. 1: Heroides, 7. 59: 16. 203. See also Catullus C. 3. 1, 13. 2: Horace, 1. 19. 1 :4. 1. 5.
- ^ Eden (1963),[7]: 456 citing Ovid. Fasti. 4:869–70, cf. I35–I38. Ovid describes the rites observed in the early Imperial era, when the temple environs were part of the Gardens of Sallust.
- ^ Murcia had a shrine at the Circus Maximus.
- ^ "Bona Dea" means "The Good Goddess". She was also a "Women's goddess".
References
- ^ Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 2, a Sourcebook, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998, 2.1a, p. 27
- ^ a b c de Vaan 2008, p. 663.
- ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1.
- ISBN 1-884964-98-2.
- ^ Vénus – figurine (photograph). Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
- ^ a b c d Schilling, R. (1954). La religion romaine de Venus depuis les origines jusqu'au temps d' Auguste. Paris, FR: Editions E. de Boccard.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Eden, P.T. (1963). "Venus and the Cabbage". Hermes. 91: 448–59.
- ^ R., Schilling (1962). "La relation Venus venia". Latomus. 21: 3–7.
- ^ de Vaan 2008, p. 660.
- ^ Linked through an adjectival form *venes-no-: William W. Skeat ibid. s.v. "venom"
- ^ Hesiod. Theogony. 176.
- ^ a b c d Staples, Ariadne (1998). From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and category in Roman religion. Routledge.
- ^ Hersch, Karen K., The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 66–67, 231-266.
- ^ Whoever threw "Venus" had the right to appoint a "King of the Feast"; the "Venus" throw was also known as the "Basilicus" (from the Greek "king"). See article by James Yates, M.A., F.R.S., and primary sources on entry Talus, pp. 1095‑1096 of William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
- ISBN 978-0-8132-1484-9.
- JSTOR 311293.
- ^ JSTOR 3333191.
- ^ Servius, ad Aeneiadem, ii. 632.
- ^ Venerem igitur almum adorans, sive femina sive mas est, as quoted by Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.8.3.
- ^ Penner, Todd C., Stichele, Caroline Van der, editors, Mapping Gender in Ancient Religious Discourses, p. 22, 2007, Brill, isbn 90-04-15447-7
- ^ Dominic Montserrat, "Reading Gender in the Roman World," in Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity, and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), pp. 172–173.
- ^ Turcan, pp. 141–43.
- ^ Platner, Samuel Ball; Ashby, Thomas (1929). A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. p. 551 – via Penelope, U.Chicago.
- ^ Description from Walters Art Museum
- ^ Eden (1963),[7]: 457 citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 15.119–21.
- rape of the Sabine women. Also cited in Wagenvoort, p. 180.
- ^ Smith, William. "Venus". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London: John Murray – via Perseus, Tufts University.
- ^ Livy. Ab Urbe Condita. 23.31.
- ^ McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998). Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. p. 25.
- ^ a b c d e Beard, M.; Price, S.; North, J. (1998). Religions of Rome: A history, illustrated. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Christie's online catalogue essay, citing Vermuele and Brauer, Stone Sculptures, The Greek, Roman and Etruscan Collections of the Harvard University Art Museums, pp. 50-51
- ^ Paulus-Festus s. v. p. 80 L: Frutinal templum Veneris Fruti
- ^ Strabo V 3, 5
- ^ CIL X 797; cited in Liou-Gilles, B. (1996). "Naissance de la ligue latine. Mythe et culte de fondation". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire. 74 (1): 85.
- ^ JSTOR 1192570.
- JSTOR 41681338.
- ^ Havelock, Christine Mitchell,The Aphrodite of Knidos and Her Successors: A Historical Review of the Female Nude in Greek Art, University of Michigan Press, 2007, pp 100-102, ISBN 978-0-472-03277-8
- Lingua Latina. 6, 47.
- ^ Augustine, De civitate Dei, IV. 16; Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, IV. 9. 16; Murcus in Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 1, 33, 5 – cf murcidus = "slothful".
- ^ "The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome", v. 1, p. 167
- ^ Elisabeth Asmis, "Lucretius' Venus and Stoic Zeus", Hermes, 110, (1982), p. 458 ff.
- ^ Lill, Anne (2011). "Myths of Pompeii: reality and legacy". Baltic Journal of Art History. 3.
- S2CID 154443189.
- ]
- OCLC 225874239.[page needed]
- OCLC 61680895.[page needed]
- ^ Thus Walter Burkert, in Homo Necans (1972) 1983:80, noting C. Koch on "Venus Victrix" in Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, 8 A860-64.
- ^ Livy. Ab Urbe Condita. 23.31.
- ^ Orlin, Eric (2007), in Rüpke, J, ed. A Companion to Roman Religion, Blackwell publishing, p. 62.
- ^ a b c Beard, Mary (2007). The Roman Triumph. The Belknap Press.
- ^ a b Lipka gives a foundation date of 181 BC for Venus' Colline temple.[52]: 72–73
- ^ a b Lipka, Michael (2009). Roman Gods: A conceptual approach. Brill.
- ^ JSTOR 4238789.
- ^ Torelli, Mario (1992). Typology and Structure of Roman Historical Reliefs. University of Michigan Press. pp. 8–9.
- ^ Plutarch. Life of Sulla. 19.9.
- ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), pp. 67–69
- ^ Vitruvius. "Book 1". De architectura. 7.1 – via Penelope, U. Chicago.
- ^ Vitruvius. "Book 3". De architectura. 1.5 – via Penelope, U. Chicago.
- ^ Grout, James. "Temple of Venus and Rome". Encyclopedia Romana – via Penelope, U. Chicago.
- ^ "April". Etymology Online.
- JSTOR 282639.
- ^ Langlands, p. 59, citing Ovid. Fasti. 4. 155–62.
- .
- ^ Staples[12]: 122 citing Ovid. Fasti. 4.863–72.
- Varro. Lingua Latina. 6.16.
- ^ Grossi, Olindo. "The Forum of Julius Caesar and the Temple of Venus Genetrix." Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 13 (1936): 215–2. https://doi.org/10.2307/4238590.
- ^ Williams, M.F. (2003). "The Sidus Iulium, the divinity of men, and the Golden Age in Virgil's Aeneid" (PDF). Leeds International Classical Studies. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2014-03-23.
- ^ Orlin,[53]: 4, note 14 citing Ovid. Fasti. 4.876.
- Vergil. Aeneid. 8.696–700.
- ^ See entry "Cupid" in The Classical Tradition, edited by Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Most, and Salvatore Settis (Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 244–246; cf Cicero, On the nature of the Gods, 3.59-3.60.
- JSTOR 311293.
- ^ JSTOR 311134.
- JSTOR 311293.
- ^ Clark, Anna, Divine Qualities: Cult and Community in Republican Rome, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 177.
- ^ Leonard A. Curchin, Leonard A., "Personal Wealth in Roman Spain," Historia 32.2 (1983), p. 230
- ^ Kaufmann-Heinimann, in Rüpke (ed), pp. 197–98.
- ^ Brain (2017), pp. 51–56
- ^ Versnel, H.S. (1994). "Transition and reversal in myth and ritual". Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion. Vol. 2. Brill. p. 262.
- ^ Eden (1963)[7]: 457–58 citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 15,119–21
- article.
- ISBN 978-0195219234
- ISBN 978-9004086067, citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Ch 23, line 152–58; and Book 15, Ch.38, line 125}}
- ISBN 0-674-01130-9.
Bibliography
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- ISBN 978-0-674-02613-1
- Brain, Carla (23 March 2017). "Venus in Pompeian Domestic Space: Decoration and Context". Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal (2016): 51–66. .
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- ISBN 978-1-4051-2943-5
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External links
- Media related to Venus (dea) at Wikimedia Commons