Victoria Falls
Victoria Falls | |
---|---|
Mosi-oa Tunya Shungu Namutitima | |
Zambezi River | |
Average flow rate | 1,088 m3/s (38,400 cu ft/s) |
Official name | Mosi-oa-Tunya / Victoria Falls |
Type | Natural |
Criteria | vii, viii |
Designated | 1989 (13th session) |
Reference no. | 509 |
Region | List of World Heritage Sites in Africa |
Victoria Falls (
Archeological sites and oral history describe a long record of African knowledge of the site. Though known to some European geographers before the 19th century, Scottish missionary David Livingstone identified the falls in 1855, providing the British colonial name of Victoria Falls after Queen Victoria. Since the mid 20th century, the site has been an increasingly important source of tourism. Zambia and Zimbabwe both have national parks and tourism infrastructure at the site. Research in the late 2010s found that precipitation variability due to climate change is likely to change the character of the fall.
Name origins
The nearby national park in Zambia is named Mosi-oa-Tunya, whereas the national park and town on the Zimbabwean shore are both named Victoria Falls.[6]
Size
While it is neither the highest nor the widest waterfall in the world, the Victoria Falls is classified as the largest, based on its combined width of 1,708 metres (5,604 ft)[7] and height of 108 metres (354 ft),[8] resulting in the world's largest sheet of falling water. The Victoria Falls are roughly twice the height of North America's Niagara Falls and well over twice its width.[9]
For a considerable distance upstream from the falls, the Zambezi flows over a level sheet of
The falls are formed where the full width of the river plummets in a single vertical drop into a transverse chasm 1,708 metres (5,604 ft) wide, carved by its waters along a fracture zone in the basalt plateau. The depth of the chasm, called the First Gorge, varies from 80 metres (260 ft) at its western end to 108 metres (354 ft) in the centre. The only outlet from the First Gorge is a 110-metre-wide (360 ft) gap about two-thirds of the way across the width of the falls from the western end. The whole volume of the river pours into the Victoria Falls gorges from this narrow cleft.[10]
There are two islands on the crest of the falls that are large enough to divide the curtain of water even at full flood: Boaruka Island (or Cataract Island) near the western bank, and Livingstone Island near the middle – the point from which Livingstone first viewed the falls. At less than full flood, additional islets divide the curtain of water into separate parallel streams. The main streams are named, in order from Zimbabwe (west) to Zambia (east): the Devil's Cataract[10] (called Leaping Water by some), the Main Falls, the Rainbow Falls (the highest) and the Eastern Cataract.
The River Zambezi, upstream from the falls, experiences a
When the dry season takes effect, the islets on the crest become wider and more numerous, and in September to January up to half of the rocky face of the falls may become dry and the bottom of the First Gorge can be seen along most of its length. At this time it becomes possible (though not necessarily safe) to walk across some stretches of the river at the crest. It is also possible to walk to the bottom of the First Gorge at the Zimbabwean side. The minimum flow, which occurs in November, is around a tenth of the April figure; this variation in flow is greater than that of other major falls, and causes the Victoria Falls' annual average flow rate to be lower than might be expected based on the maximum flow.[12] In 2019 unusually low rain dramatically reduced the fall to the lowest flow in a century. Global climate change and changed climate patterns are suggested to have caused this.[13][14]
Gorges
The entire volume of the Zambezi River pours through the First Gorge's 110-metre-wide (360 ft) exit for a distance of about 150 metres (490 ft), then enters a zigzagging series of gorges designated by the order in which the river reaches them. Water entering the Second Gorge makes a sharp right turn and has carved out a deep pool there called the Boiling Pot. Reached via a steep footpath from the Zambian side, it is about 150 m (500 ft) across. Its surface is smooth at low water, but at high water is marked by enormous, slow swirls and heavy boiling turbulence.[12] Objects and animals that are swept over the falls, including the occasional hippopotamus, crocodile, or human, are frequently found swirling about here or washed up at the north-east end of the Second Gorge. This is where the bodies of Mrs Moss and Mr Orchard, mutilated by crocodiles, were found in 1910 after two canoes were capsized by a hippo at Long Island above the falls.[15]
The principal gorges are
- First Gorge: the one the river falls into at Victoria Falls
- Second Gorge: 250 metres (820 ft) south of falls, 2.15 kilometres (1.34 mi) long, spanned by the Victoria Falls Bridge
- Third Gorge: 600 metres (2,000 ft) south, 1.95 kilometres (1.21 mi) long, containing the Victoria Falls Power Station
- Fourth Gorge: 1.15 kilometres (0.71 mi) south, 2.25 kilometres (1.40 mi) long
- Fifth Gorge: 2.25 kilometres (1.40 mi) south, 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) long
- Songwe Gorge: 5.3 kilometres (3.3 mi) south, 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) long named after the small Songwe River coming from the north-east, and the deepest at 140 metres (460 ft), the level of the river in them varies by up to 20 metres (66 ft) between wet and dry seasons.[12]
Formation
The Upper Zambezi River originally drained south through present day Botswana to join the
The recent geological history of Victoria Falls can be seen in the overall form of the Batoka Gorge, with its six individual gorges and eight past positions of the falls. The east–west oriented gorges imply structural control with alignment along joints of shatter zones, or faults with 50 metres (160 ft) of vertical displacement as is the case of the second and fifth gorges. Headward erosion along these structural lines of weakness would establish a new fall line and abandonment of the earlier line. North-south oriented joints control the south flowing sections of the river. One of these is the "Boiling Pot", which links the First Gorge with the Second Gorge.[21]: 147, 149 [12]
The falls may have already started cutting back the next major gorge, at the dip in one side of the "Devil's Cataract", between the western river bank and Cataract Island. The lip in the current falls is lowest here and carries the greatest concentration of water at flood stage.[21]: 149
The
Further geological history of the course of the
History
Geological history
The basalt plateau of Victoria Falls, over which the
Pre-colonial history
The southern Tonga people known as the
A map drawn by
19th century
In November 1855,
Livingstone had been told about the falls before he reached them from upriver and was paddled across to a small island that now bears the name Livingstone Island in Zambia. Livingstone had previously been impressed by the Ngonye Falls further upstream, but found the new falls much more impressive, and gave them their English name in honour of Queen Victoria. He wrote of the falls, "No one can imagine the beauty of the view from anything witnessed in England. It had never been seen before by European eyes; but scenes so lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in their flight."[12]
In 1860, Livingstone returned to the area and made a detailed study of the falls with
History since 1900
Victoria Falls Bridge initiates tourism
European settlement of the Victoria Falls area started around 1900 in response to the desire of
During independence movements
In 1964, Northern Rhodesia became the independent state of Zambia. The following year, Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence. This was not recognised by Zambia, the United Kingdom nor the vast majority of states and led to United Nations-mandated sanctions. In response to the emerging crisis, in 1966 Zambia restricted or stopped border crossings. It did not re-open the border completely until 1980. The Rhodesian Bush War erupted on the southern side of the Zambezi from 1972 to 1980 with terrorist incursions from Zambia, Mozambique and Botswana. Visitor numbers began to drop, particularly on the Rhodesian side. Periodic Rhodesian military cross border operations against guerrilla camps in Zambia, causing the Zambians to impose security measures including the stationing of soldiers to restrict access to the gorges and some parts of the falls.
Zimbabwe's internationally recognized independence in 1980 brought comparative peace, and the 1980s witnessed renewed levels of tourism and the development of the region as a centre for
Tourism in recent years
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2020) |
By the end of the 1990s almost 400,000 people were visiting the falls annually, and this was expected to rise to over a million in the next decade. Unlike the game parks, Victoria Falls has more Zimbabwean and Zambian visitors than international tourists; the attraction is accessible by bus and train, and is therefore comparatively inexpensive to reach.
Both countries permit tourists to make day trips across the border to view the falls from both viewpoints. Visitors with single-entry visas are required to purchase a visa each time they cross the border; visas can be obtained at both border posts. Costs vary from US$50–$80 (as of January 2017[update]). Visa regulations change frequently; visitors are advised to check the rules currently in effect in both countries before crossing the border in either direction. Additionally, foreign tourists may purchase a KAZA visa for US$50 that will permit visitors to travel between Zambia and Zimbabwe for up to 30 days as long as they remain within the covered countries.
A famous feature is the naturally formed "Armchair" (now sometimes called "Devil's Pool"), near the edge of the falls on the Zambian side, along the western tip of Livingstone Island. When the river flow is at a certain level, usually between September and December, a rock barrier forms an eddy with minimal current, allowing adventurous swimmers to splash around in relative safety in front of the point where the water cascades over the falls.[34] One death of a tourist guide has been reported.[35]
The numbers of visitors to the Zimbabwean side of the falls has historically been much higher than the number visiting the Zambian side, due to the greater development of the visitor facilities there. However, the number of tourists visiting Zimbabwe began to decline in the early 2000s as political tensions between supporters and opponents of president Robert Mugabe increased. In 2006, hotel occupancy on the Zimbabwean side hovered at around 30%, while the Zambian side was near capacity, with rates in top hotels reaching US$630 per night.[36][37] The rapid development has prompted the United Nations to consider revoking the falls' status as a World Heritage Site.[38] In addition, problems of waste disposal and a lack of effective management of the falls' environment are a concern.[39]
Natural environment
National parks
The two national parks at the falls are relatively small – Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park is 66 km2 (25 sq mi) and Victoria Falls National Park is 23 km2 (8.9 sq mi). However, next to the latter on the southern bank is the Zambezi National Park, extending 40 kilometres (25 mi) west along the river.[12] Animals can move between the two Zimbabwean parks and can also reach Matetsi Safari Area, Kazuma Pan National Park and Hwange National Park to the south.[33]
On the Zambian side, fences and the outskirts of Livingstone tend to confine most animals to the Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park. In addition fences put up by lodges in response to crime restrict animal movement.[39]
On the Botswanan side of the border, Chobe National Park is a short distance to travel to and is a popular location for a day trip for many tourists visiting Victoria Falls for extended stays. It offers more diverse flora and fauna than Hwange National Park.[40]
In 2004 a separate group of police called the Tourism Police was started. They are commonly seen around the main tourist areas, and can be identified by their uniforms with yellow reflective bibs.[41]
Vegetation
Riverine forest with palm trees lines the banks and islands above the falls. The most notable aspect of the area's vegetation though is the
Wildlife
The national parks contain abundant wildlife including sizeable populations of
Fish
The river is home to 39 species of fish below the falls and 84 species above it. This illustrates the effectiveness of the falls as a dividing barrier between the upper and lower Zambezi.[33]
Effects of climate change
In February 2020, National Geographic highlighted the threat to the falls from extreme weather conditions.[43] Rising temperatures make the region hotter and drier.[43] There is substantial water flow variability from year to year, with a significant drop in the general trend of water flow in September, October, November and December.[44] This is particularly pronounced in drought years, which are becoming more frequent and intense.[45] Such occurrences have affected the aesthetics of the waterfalls,[46] and there are fears that Victoria Falls might join other World Heritage sites categorised as last-chance destinations.[46]
Recognition of the risks to the falls has sparked great debate among those in the tourism industry in both Zambia and Zimbabwe.[47] While it has already had a negative impact on tourism[citation needed], many experts in the region dismiss the story as ill-researched and irresponsible journalism. They do not deny climate change and the impact it is having on the amount of water that cascades over the falls, but they argue the narrative is incomplete.[48]
Statistics
"The Smoke that Thunders", rainy season, 1972 ... and dry season, September 2003 | ||||||
Size and flow rate of Victoria Falls with Niagara and Iguazu for comparison | ||||||
Parameters | Victoria Falls | Niagara Falls | Iguazu Falls | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Height in meters and feet:[4] | 108 m | 360 ft | 51 m | 167 ft | 64–82 m | 210–269 ft |
Width in meters and feet:[4] | 1,708 m | 5,604 ft | 1,203 m | 3,947 ft | 2,700 m | 8,858 ft |
Flow rate units (vol/s): | m3/s | cu ft/s | m3/s | cu ft/s | m3/s | cu ft/s |
Mean annual flow rate:[4] | 1,088 | 38,430 | 2,407 | 85,000 | 1,746 | 61,600 |
Mean monthly flow – max.:[11] | 3,000 | 105,944 | ||||
Mean monthly flow – min.:[11] | 300 | 10,594 | ||||
Mean monthly flow – 10 yr. max.:[11] | 6,000 | 211,888 | ||||
Highest recorded flow:[4] | 12,800 | 452,000 | 6,800 | 240,000 | 45,700 | 1,614,000 |
Notes: See references for explanation of measurements. For water, cubic metres per second = tonnes per second. Half the water approaching Niagara is diverted for hydroelectric power. Iguazu has two drops; height given for biggest drop and total height. 10 falls have greater or equal flow rates, but are not as high as Iguazu and Victoria Falls.[11] |
See also
- List of waterfalls by flow rate
- Batoka Gorge Hydroelectric Power Station
- 2018–19 Southern Africa drought
References
- ^ "Victoria Falls". World Waterfall Database. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
- ^ "Soar Above One of the Most Awe-Inspiring Waterfalls on Earth". National Geographic. 19 March 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
- ^ "Livingstone Tourism Association, Victoria Falls, Zambia". livingstonetourism.com. Livingstone, Zambia. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
- ^ a b c d e "World Waterfalls & Water Filters for Filtration of Clean Water". Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2007.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ a b Wellington, John H. (1955). Southern Africa: A Geographical Study. Vol. 1. Cambridge: University Press. p. 392.
- ^ "Medium Term Plan (MTP): January 2010 – December 2015" (PDF). Government of Zimbabwe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
- ^ Southern Africa Places (2009). Victoria Falls. Retrieved on 18 May 2009 from Victoria Falls Archived 6 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine – South Africa Places
- ^ "Victoria Falls". World Digital Library. 1890–1925. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- ^ "Waterfalls & Water Filters for Filtration of Clean Water". Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2007.
- ^ ISBN 0-89577-087-3.
- ^ a b c d e World Commission on Dams website: Archived 1 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine "Case Study – Kariba Dam-Zambezi River Basin" Annex 13 & 14 Victoria Falls Mean Monthly Flows. Website accessed 1 March 2007. This website gives mean monthly flow rates in cubic metres per second (i.e., the total volume of water passing in each calendar month divided by the number of seconds in the month), the standard measure used in hydrology to indicate seasonal variation in flow. A figure of around 9,000 m3/s (318,000 cu ft) is quoted by many websites for Victoria Falls but this is the mean maximum instantaneous rate, which is only achieved for a few days per year. The figure of 536 million m3/minute (18.9 billion cu ft/min) on some websites (e.g. ZNTB) is an error for 536 million litres/minute (equivalent to 9,100 m3/s, 142 million U.S. gallons or 118 million Imperial gallons per min). The '10-year maximum' is the mean of the maximum monthly rate returned in a ten-year period.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-86872-012-5– via Struik Publishers.
- ^ "Victoria Falls slows to a trickle, fuelling fears of climate change". ABC News. 7 December 2019.
- ^ "Victoria Falls dries to a trickle after worst drought in a century". The Guardian. 7 December 2019.
- ^ a b Hunt, B. L. (1959). "Kalomo to Livingstone in 1907". The Northern Rhodesia Journal. IV (1): 16.
Mr Moss and Mrs Orchard and the eight Lozi paddlers managed to swim to the island, one of the paddlers saving the Orchards' year-old baby
- .
- hdl:1854/LU-5684262.
- ^ "Makgadikgadi Salt Pans". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
- ^ "Geological history – Botswana Travel Guide". www.botswana-travel-guide.com. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-77584-448-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-481-3054-2.
- ^ Clark, J. D. (1950). "Archaeology". The Stone Age cultures of Northern Rhodesia, with particular Reference to the Cultural and Climatic Succession in the Upper Zambezi Valley and its Tributaries. Cape Town: South African Archaeological Society. pp. 31–131.
- ^ Robinson, K. R. (1966). "The Iron Age site in Kapula Vlei, near the Masuma Dam, Wankie Game Reserve, Rhodesia". Arnoldia, Rhodesia (239): 1–7.
- .
- ^ The Northern Rhodesia Journal online: "Native Name of Victoria Falls", Vol I No 6 p. 68 (1952). Accessed 28 February 2007.
- ^ "The History and Discovery of Victoria Falls". Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ^ "The History and Discovery of Victoria Falls – Zambia Tourism". www.zambiatourism.com. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ^ The Northern Rhodesia Journal online: "Native Name of Victoria Falls", Vol I No 4 pp. 80–82 (1951). Accessed 28 February 2007.
- ^ Agter die Magalies: "Agter Die Magalies" B.K. de Beer, pp. 43–44 (1975) Postma Publications. Accessed 1 September 2007.
- ^ The international service of Czech Radio online: "Statue of explorer Emil Holub unveiled in Livingstone, Zambia" accessed 28 February 2007.
- ^ Eric Anderson Walker. The Cambridge History of the British Empire, volume 2. CUP Archive, 1963. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
- ISBN 9780869782071. Retrieved 4 October 2015
- ^ a b c d e f United Nations Environment Programme: Protected Areas and World Heritage World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Website accessed 1 March 2007.
- ^ "Devils Pool Victoria Falls and Livingstone Island Tour". www.victoriafalls-guide.net. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
- ^ "Tour guide in Vic Falls plunge". New Zimbabwe. 28 September 2009. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- ^ "At African Waterfall, Visitors Confront A Tale of Two Cities." Trofimov, Y. The Wall Street Journal. 29 December 2006.
- ^ Wines, Michael (21 June 2004). "Victoria Falls Journal; The Best of Times, and the Worst, for Two Tourist Towns". The New York Times.
- ^ "Victoria Falls 'at risk', UN warns". The Independent. 7 January 2007. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022.
- ^ a b S Hanyona: "Zambia's Ecotourism Venture Butted by Ecotroubles." 5 March 2002. ENS website accessed 9 March 2007.
- ^ "About Chobe National Park". Chobe Game Lodge. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
- ^ http://www.victoriafalls-guide.net/victoria-falls-tourism-police-december-2011.html. Archived 10 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe, October 2017". Independent Travellers. independent-travellers.com. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
- ^ a b "Extreme weather threatens one of Earth's most awe-inspiring waterfalls". Travel. 18 February 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
- S2CID 158257075.
- S2CID 158211459.
- ^ S2CID 214764894.
- ^ "Could Victoria Falls dry up?". News. 25 November 2019.
- ^ "Victoria Falls in 2020? Here's Proof It is Not Drying Up". Travel. 18 February 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
External links
- Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). pp. 44–45. .
- "Mosi-oa-Tunya". UNEP-WCMC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
- "Victoria Falls, Zambezi River". NASA Earth Observatory. Archived from the original on 27 September 2003.
- "Victoria Falls". UNESCO World Heritage.