Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Veer Vinayak Damodar Savarkar | |
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Hindu Mahasabha | |
Spouse |
Yamunabai
(m. 1901; died 1963) |
Relatives | Ganesh Damodar Savarkar (brother) |
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar(
Savarkar began his political activities as a high school student and continued to do so at Fergusson College in Pune.[8] He and his brother founded a secret society called Abhinav Bharat Society. When he went to the United Kingdom for his law studies, he involved himself with organizations such as India House and the Free India Society. He also published books advocating complete Indian independence by revolutionary means.[9] One of the books he published called The Indian War of Independence about the Indian Rebellion of 1857 was banned by the British colonial authorities.[10]
In 1910, Savarkar was arrested by the British government and was ordered to be extradited to India for his connections with India House. On the voyage back to India, Savarkar staged an attempt to escape from the steamship SS Morea and seek
After being released from his restriction to Ratnagiri district in 1937, Savarkar started traveling widely, becoming a forceful orator and writer, advocating Hindu political and social unity. In his Ahmedabad addressal, he supported
In 1939, the ruling Indian National Congress resigned en masse over Britain declaring India a belligerent in World War II. The Hindu Mahasabha under Savarkar formed alliances with the Muslim League and other non-Congress parties to form government in many states. Subsequently, Congress under Gandhi's leadership launched the Quit India Movement; Savarkar boycotted the movement,[14] writing a letter titled "Stick to your Posts" and recruiting Indians for the British war effort.[15] In 1948, Savarkar was charged as a co-conspirator in the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi; he was acquitted by the court for lack of evidence.
Life and career
Early life
Savarkar was born on 28 May 1883 in the
Student activist
Savarkar continued his political activism as a student at Fergusson College in Pune. Savarkar was greatly influenced by the radical Nationalist leader, Lokmanya Tilak. Tilak was in turn impressed with the young student and helped him obtain the Shivaji Scholarship in 1906 for his law studies in London.[8][22] To protest against Bengal partition of 1905, Savarkar led foreign-clothes bonfire in India with other students in presence of Bal Gangadhar Tilak.[23]
London years
In London, Savarkar got involved with organizations such as India House and the Free India Society. He also published books advocating complete Indian independence by revolutionary means.[9] One of the books he published called The Indian War of Independence about the Indian Rebellion of 1857 was banned by the British colonial authorities.[24]
Savarkar was influenced by the life and thinking of Italian Nationalist leader,
Arrest and transportation to India
In India, Ganesh Savarkar organized an armed revolt against the
Although his alleged crimes were committed both in Britain, as well as India, the British authorities decided to try him in India. He was accordingly put on the commercial ship Morea with a police escort for his transport to India. When the ship docked in the French Mediterranean port of Marseille, Savarkar escaped by jumping from the ship's window, swam to the French shore, and asked for political asylum. The French port officials ignored his pleas, and handed him back to his British captors. When the French government came to know of this incidence, they asked for Savarkar to be brought back to France, and lodged an appeal with the Permanent Court of Arbitration.[33][34][29]
French Case before the Permanent Court of Arbitration
Savarkar | |
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M. Beernaert, president, elected by panel Louis Renault Earl of Desart G. Gram Alexander de Savornin Lohman | |
Case opinions | |
Decision by | Unanimous panel |
Savarkar's arrest at Marseilles caused the French government to protest against the British, arguing that the British could not recover Savarkar unless they took appropriate legal proceedings for his rendition. The dispute came before the Permanent Court of International Arbitration in 1910, and it gave its decision in 1911. The case excited much controversy as was reported widely by the French press, and it considered it involved an interesting international question of the right of asylum.[35]
The Court held, firstly, that since there was a pattern of collaboration between the two countries regarding the possibility of Savarkar's escape in Marseilles and there was neither force nor fraud in inducing the French authorities to return Savarkar to them, the British authorities did not have to hand him back to the French for the latter to hold rendition proceedings. On the other hand, the tribunal also observed that there had been an "irregularity" in Savarkar's arrest and delivery over to the Indian Army Military Police guard.[36]
Trial and sentence
Arriving in
Prisoner in Andaman
Clemency Petitions
1911
Savarkar applied to the Bombay Government for certain concessions in connection with his sentences. However, by Government letter No. 2022, dated 4 April 1911, his application was rejected and he was informed that the question of remitting the second sentence of transportation for life would be considered in due course on the expiry of the first sentence of transportation for life.[40] A month after arriving in the Cellular Jail, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Savarkar submitted his first clemency petition on 30 August 1911. This petition was rejected on 3 September 1911.[41]
1913
Savarkar submitted his next clemency petition on 14 November 1913 and presented it personally to the Home Member of the Governor General's council, Sir Reginald Craddock.[42] In his letter, he described himself as a "prodigal son" longing to return to the "parental doors of the government".[a] He wrote that his release from the jail will recast the faith of many Indians in the British rule. Also, he said "Moreover, my conversion to the constitutional line would bring back all those misled young men in India and abroad who were once looking up to me as their guide. I am ready to serve the government in any capacity they like, for as my conversion is conscientious so I hope my future conduct would be. By keeping me in jail, nothing can be got in comparison to what would be otherwise."[44]
1917
In 1917, Savarkar submitted another clemency petition, this time for a general amnesty of all political prisoners. Savarkar was informed on 1 February 1918 that the clemency petition was placed before the British colonial government.
This petition was rejected on 12 July 1920 by the British colonial government.[50] After considering the petition, the British colonial government contemplated releasing Ganesh Savarkar but not Vinayak Savarkar. The rationale for doing so was stated as follows[51]
It may be observed that if Ganesh is released and Vinayak is retained in custody, the latter will become in some measure a hostage for the former, who will see that his own misconduct does not jeopardize his brother's chances of release at some future date.
Savarkar signed a statement endorsing his trial, verdict, and British law, and renouncing violence, a bargain for freedom.
Ratnagiri years under restricted freedom
On 2 May 1921, the Savarkar brothers were transferred from Andaman to mainland India with Vinayak being sent to a jail in
Leader of the Hindu Mahasabha
Savarkar as president of the Hindu Mahasabha, during the Second World War, advanced the slogan "Hinduize all Politics and Militarize Hindudom" and decided to support the British war effort in India seeking military training for the Hindus.
Hindu Mahasabha under Savarkar's leadership organized Hindu Militarization Boards which recruited armed forces for helping the British in
He assailed the British proposals for transfer of power, attacking both the Congress and the British for making concessions to Muslim separatists. Soon after independence, Syama Prasad Mukherjee resigned as vice-president of the Hindu Mahasabha dissociating himself from its Akhand Hindustan (Undivided India) plank, which implied undoing partition.[61]
Opposition to Quit India Movement
Under Savarkar, the Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call for the Quit India Movement and boycotted it officially.[14] Savarkar even went to the extent of writing a letter titled "Stick to your Posts", in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be "members of municipalities, local bodies, legislatures or those serving in the army ... to stick to their posts" across the country, and not to join the Quit India Movement at any cost.[14]
Alliance with Muslim League and others
The Indian National Congress won a massive victory in the 1937 Indian provincial elections, decimating the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha. However, in 1939, the Congress ministries resigned in protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's action of declaring India to be a belligerent in the Second World War without consulting the Indian people. This led to the Hindu Mahasabha, under Savarkar's presidency, joining hands with the Muslim League and other parties to form governments, in certain provinces. Such coalition governments were formed in Sindh, NWFP, and Bengal.[56]
In Sindh, Hindu Mahasabha members joined Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah's Muslim League government. In Savarkar's own words,
"Witness the fact that only recently in Sind, the Sind-Hindu-Sabha on invitation had taken the responsibility of joining hands with the League itself in running coalition government[62][63][64]
In the
In Bengal, Hindu Mahasabha joined the
Arrest and acquittal in Gandhi's assassination
Following the assassination of Gandhi on 30 January 1948, police arrested the assassin
Badge's testimony
Godse claimed full responsibility for planning and carrying out the assassination. However, according to the
In the last week of August 1974, Mr.
Kapur commission
On 12 November 1964, at a religious program organized in Pune to celebrate the release of
The commission's reinvestigation saw Savarkar's secretary and bodyguard to have testified that Savarkar met with Godse and Apte right before Gandhi was killed.[76]
The commission was provided with evidence not produced in the court; especially the testimony of two of Savarkar's close aides – Appa Ramachandra Kasar, his bodyguard, and Gajanan Vishnu Damle, his secretary.
Justice Kapur concluded: "All these facts taken together were destructive of any theory other than the conspiracy to murder by Savarkar and his group."[77][79][80]
The arrest of Savarkar was mainly based on approver
Later years
After Gandhi's assassination, Savarkar's home in Dadar, Bombay was stoned by angry mobs. After he was acquitted of the allegations related to Gandhi's assassination and released from jail, Savarkar was arrested by the government for making "Hindu nationalist speeches"; he was released after agreeing to give up political activities. He continued addressing the social and cultural elements of Hindutva. He resumed political activism after the ban on it was lifted; it was however limited until his death in 1966 because of ill health.
In 1956, he opposed B. R. Ambedkar's conversion to Buddhism calling it a "useless act", to which Ambedkar responded by publicly questioning the use of epithet ‘Veer’ (meaning brave) by Savarkar.[81]
On 22 November 1957, Raja Mahendra Pratap moved a bill in Lok Sabha to recognise the service to the country of people like Vir Savarkar, Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Datta. But the bill was defeated with 48 votes favouring it and 75 against it. This bill was also supported by communist leader like A. K. Gopalan.[82][83]
Death
On 8 November 1963, Savarkar's wife, Yamunabai, died. On 1 February 1966, Savarkar renounced medicines, food, and water which was termed as
There was no official mourning by the Maharashtra Pradesh Congress Committee or the central government in Delhi during the time of his death. Not a single minister from the Maharashtra Cabinet showed up to pay homage and respect to Savarkar.[87][note 1] The political indifference to Savarkar has also continued after his death.[note 2] After the death of Nehru, the Congress government, under Prime Minister Shastri, started to pay him a monthly pension.[89]
Religious and political views
Hindutva
In contrast with Dayananda Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo, who were "men of religion" who introduced reforms in the society and put Hinduism in front of the world, Savarkar mixed politics and religion and started an extreme form of Hindu nationalism.[90]
During his incarceration, Savarkar's views began turning increasingly towards Hindu cultural and political nationalism, and the next phase of his life remained dedicated to this cause.
According to Sharma, Savarkar's celebration and justification of violence against [British] women and children in his description of the Mutiny of 1857, "transformed Hindutva into the very image of Islam that he defined and found so intolerably objectionable".[95]
Scholars, historians and Indian politicians have been divided in their interpretation of Savarkar's ideas. A self-described atheist,[96] Savarkar regards being Hindu as a cultural and political identity. He often stressed social and community unity between Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains, to the exclusion of Muslims and Christians. Savarkar saw Muslims and Christians as "misfits" in the Indian civilization who could not truly be a part of the nation.[97] He argued that the holiest sites of Islam and Christianity are in the Middle East and not India, hence the loyalty of Muslims and Christians to India is divided.[97][98]
After his release from jail on 6 January 1924,
Focusing his energies on writing, Savarkar authored the Hindu Pad-pada-shahi
Hindu orthodoxy
He was an ardent critique of a number of Hindu religious practices he saw as irrational and viewed them as a hindrance to the material progress of the Hindus. He believed that religion is an unimportant aspect of "Hindu identity".
He was opposed to the caste system and in his 1931 essay titled Seven Shackles of the Hindu Society, he wrote "One of the most important components of such injunctions of the past that we have blindly carried on and which deserves to be thrown in the dustbins of history is the rigid caste system".[103][104]
However, in 1939, Savarkar assured that his party Hindu Mahasabha won't necessarily support entry of the untouchables into temples. Savarkar said, "Thus the Party will not introduce or support compulsory Legislature regarding Temple Entry by the untouchables etc. in old temples beyond the limit to which the non-Hindus are allowed by custom as in force today."[105][106]
Fascism
Part of a series on |
Fascism |
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In a speech before a 20,000 strong audience at
As World War II become imminent, Savarkar had initially advocated a policy of neutralism centered on India's geostrategic equations but his rhetoric grew coarser with time and he expressed consistent support for Hitler's policy about Jews.[107][108] In a speech on 14 October, it was suggested that Hitler's ways be adopted for dealing with Indian Muslims.[107] On 11 December, he characterized the Jews as a communal force.[107] Next March, Savarkar would welcome Germany's revival of Aryan culture, their glorification of Swastika, and the "crusade" against Aryan enemies — it was hoped that German victory would finally invigorate the Hindus of India.[107]
On 5 August 1939, Savarkar highlighted how a common strand of "thought, religion, language, and culture" was essential to nationality thus preventing the Germans and Jews from being considerable as one nation.[107] By the year end, he was directly equating the Muslims of India with German Jews — in the words of Chetan Bhatt, both were suspected of harboring extra-national loyalties and became illegitimate presences in an organic nation.[107][108][109] These speeches circulated in German newspapers with Nazi Germany even allotting a point-of-contact person for engaging with Savarkar, who was making sincere efforts to forge a working relationship with the Nazis. Eventually, Savarkar would be gifted with a copy of Mein Kampf.[107]
Nazis and Jews
Savarkar supported Hitler’s anti-Jewish policy. In 1939, he deemed that "Germans and the Jews could not be regarded as a nation". In the same year, he compared Indian Muslims with the Jews of Germany by saying "Indian Muslims are on the whole more inclined to identify themselves and their interests with Muslims outside India than Hindus who live next door, like Jews in Germany".[110][111]
In 1941, Savarkar supported Jews resettling their fatherland of Israel, in what he believed would defend the world against Islamic aggression.[108][112] In his letter dated December 19, 1947, Savarkar celebrated "the establishment of the independent Jewish State in Palestine on moral as well as political grounds" while adding that "the Jewish people bear no political ill-will towards Hindudom".[113][114]
It remains unknown whether Savarkar withdrew his support for Nazi Germany after the Holocaust became common knowledge.[108] However, on 15 January 1961 he had spoken favorably of Hitler's Nazism against Nehru's "cowardly democracy".[108]
Two-nation theory
In his earlier writings, Savarkar argued for "Indian independence from British rule", whereas in later writings he focused on "Hindu independence from Christians and Muslims".
By 1923, when his Essentials of Hindutva was published, Savarkar no longer emphasized the Hindu-Muslim unity, and primarily focused on "Hindus" rather than "Indians".[117] His writings on Hindutva emerged immediately after he was moved from the Cellular Jail to a prison in Ratnagiri in 1921, and therefore, later scholars have speculated if his stay in these prisons contributed to a change in his views. These scholars point to Savarkar's claims that the Muslim warders at the Cellular Jail treated the Muslim prisoners favourably, while mistreating Hindus; the pan-Islamic Khilafat Movement may have also influenced his views about Muslims while he stayed at Ratnagiri during 1921–1923. According to Bhai Parmanand, his fellow prisoner at the Cellular Jail during 1915–1920, Savarkar had already formed his ideas about Hindutva before they met.[118]
Savarkar in 1937 during the 19th session of the Hindu Mahasabha in Ahmedabad supported two-nation theory.[119] He said:-
There are two antagonistic nations living side by side in India. India cannot be assumed today to be a unitarian and homogenous nation. On the contrary, there are two nations in the main: the Hindus and the Muslims, in India.[120]
In the 1940s, the two-nation theory was supported by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Savarkar.[121] Savarkar declared on August 15, 1943 in Nagpur:
I have no quarrel with Mr Jinnah's two-nation theory. We Hindus are a nation by ourselves and it is a historical fact that Hindus and Muslims are two nations.[122]
Savarkar not only talked of Hindudom, Hindu Nation and Hindu Raj, but he wanted to depend upon the Sikhs in the Punjab to establish a Sikhistan. Savarkar assured the Sikhs that "when the Muslims woke from their day-dreams of Pakistan, they would see established instead a Sikhistan in the Punjab." [123] Savarkar further instigated the Sikhs by claiming that Sikhs previously occupied Afghanistan when they were not many and now there are millions of Sikhs.[124]
Muslims
Since his time in jail, Savarkar was known for his anti-Muslim writings.[125][115] Historians including Rachel McDermott, Leonard A. Gordon, Ainslie Embree, Frances Pritchett and Dennis Dalton state that Savarkar promoted an anti-Muslim form of Hindu nationalism.[126]
Savarkar saw Muslims in the Indian police and military to be "potential traitors". He advocated that India reduce the number of Muslims in the military, police and public service and ban Muslims from owning or working in munitions factories.[127] Savarkar criticized Gandhi for being concerned about Indian Muslims.[b]
In his 1963 book Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History, Savarkar says Muslims and Christians wanted to "destroy" Hinduism.[115]
Women
Historian Vinayak Chaturvedi writes that in a 1937 speech Savarkar said that "Kitchen and children were the main duties of women" and suggested that they have healthy children. Unlike Tilak who said that women should not be allowed education at all as reading may make them "immoral" and "insubordinate", Savarkar held a less extreme view. Savarkar did not oppose education of women but suggested that the education focus on how they could be good mothers and create a generation of patriotic children. In an essay, "Women's beauty and duty", he stated that a woman's main duty was to her children, her home and her country. As per Savarkar, any woman digressing from her domestic duties was "morally guilty of breach of trust".[129]
In his 1963 book Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History, Savarkar advocated use of rape as political tool.[130] He accused Muslim women of actively supporting Muslim men's atrocities against Hindu women, Savarkar wrote that young and beautiful Muslim girls should be captured, converted and presented to Maratha warriors to reward them, stating that the Muslim ruler Tipu Sultan had similarly distributed Hindu girls among his warriors. He further wrote:[131]
"Let the sultans and their peers take a pledge that in the event of a Hindu victory our molestation and detestable lot shall be avenged on the Muslim women. Once they are haunted with this dreadful apprehension that the Muslim women too, stand in the same predicament in the case the Hindus win, the future Muslim conquerors will never dare to think of such molestation of Hindu women."
As per Sharma, based on Swami Ramdas's teaching, Savarkar justifies the killing of countless British women and children in 1857. Sharma has translated some passages from "Savarkar Samgraha" which is originally in Savarkar's native language into English to give examples.[132]
In Jhansi, 12 women along with 23 children and 75 men were killed. Savarkar calls this killing of the British whites as a Bali or "Holy Sacrifice".[132]
On page 202 of Volume 5, Savarkar Samgraha, in his native language, Savarkar writes(translated by Sharma):
Women had little children in their laps and these children were clinging on to their mothers. These women, infants and older children were guilty of being white and were decapitated with a black sword[132]
When some men, women and children were killed in the Ganga river, Savarkar describes this as a "celebration" of the anniversary of plassey on page 196.[132] In Kanpur, when 150 children and women were killed he quotes unemotionally as per Sharma in his native language that a the butchers entered Bibigarh ..and sea of white blood spread all over'.[132] In another incident on 16 May, Savarkar describes the fate of English women and children as follows:
If some woman or child pleaded for mercy, people shouted: "Revenge for Meerut's chains, revenge for slavery, revenge for the ammunition shed. The vengeful sword then decapitated the pleading head[132]
Legacy
- A commemorative postage stamp was released by government of India in 1970.[138][139]
- A portrait of Savarkar was unveiled in the Indian Parliament in 2003.[140]
- The Shiv Sena party has demanded that the Indian Government posthumously confer upon him India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna.[141] Uddhav Thackeray, Shiv Sena chief, while reiterating this demand for Bharat Ratna in 2017, has also suggested that a replica of the prison cell where Savarkar was imprisoned should be built in Mumbai and the youth should be educated about Savarkar's contribution towards the 'Hindu Rashtra' and the Indian freedom struggle.[142]
In 1926, two years after the release of Savarkar from the prison, a biography titled "Life of Barrister Savarkar" and authored by a certain "Chitragupta" was published. A revised version was published in 1939 with additions by Indra Prakash of the Hindu Mahasabha. A second edition of the book was published in 1987 by Veer Savarkar Prakashan, the official publisher of writings by Savarkar. In its preface, Ravindra Vaman Ramdas deduced that, "Chitragupta is none other than Veer Savarkar".[143][144][134]
In popular culture
- In the 1996 Malayalam movie Kaalapani directed by Priyadarshan, the Hindi actor Annu Kapoor played the role of Savarkar.[145]
- The Marathi and Hindi music director and Savarkar follower, Sudhir Phadke, and Ved Rahi made the biopic film Veer Savarkar, which was released in 2001 after many years in production. Savarkar is portrayed by Shailendra Gaur.[146][147]
- The 2015 Indian Marathi-language film What About Savarkar?, directed by Rupesh Katare and Nitin Gawde, depicted the journey of a man's revenge against those who have disrespect Savarkar's name.[148]
- The 2024 Indian Swatantrya Veer Savarkar directed, co-written, co-produced and acted by Randeep Hooda depicted the life journey of Savarkar.[149]
Books
He wrote 38 books in English and Marathi,
Notes
- ^ He met Savarkar, who is said to have submitted a clemency plea in which he described himself as the "prodigal son" eager to return "to the parental doors of the Government"[43]
- ^ He described Mahatma Gandhi's nonviolence as "absolutely sinful" and criticized Gandhi's often-expressed concern for the well-being of India's Muslims.[128]
- ^ After his death, since Savarkar was championing militarisation, some thought that it would be fitting if his mortal remains were to be carried on a gun-carriage. A request to that effect was made to the then Defence Minister, Y.B. Chavan. But Chavan turned down the proposal and not a single minister from the Maharashtra Cabinet showed up to the cremation ground to pay homage to Savarkar. In New Delhi, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha turned down a request that it pay homage to Savarkar.
- ^ When Y.B. Chavan, as the Home Minister of India, went to the Andaman Islands; he was asked whether he would like to visit Savarkar's jail but he was not interested.[citation needed] When Morarji Desai visited as Prime Minister to the Andaman islands, he too refused to visit Savarkar in his prison cell.[88]
Citations
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- ^ Keer 1966, p. 143.
- ^ "Hindutva is not the same as Hinduism said Savarkar". www.telegraphindia.com. Archived from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ^ a b "Overview of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
- ^ "Vinayak Damodar Savarkar | Biography, History, & Books | Britannica". Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
- ^ a b c Jaffrelot 2017, pp. 127–182.
- ^ a b V. Sundaram (10 May 2008). "remembering all the revolutionaries of 1857". News Today INDIA TV. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
- from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
- ISBN 978-93-5492-168-1. Archivedfrom the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-136-19708-6. Archivedfrom the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
- ^ Bombwall, K.R. (1967). The Foundations of Indian Federalism. Asia Publishing House. p. 228.
It was Savarkar, and not Jinnah, who first propounded the two-nation theory. In his presidential address at the Ahmedabad (1937) session of the Hindu Mahasabha he declared: "there are two antagonistic nations. living side by side in India."
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-67165-1. Archivedfrom the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
- ^ a b McKean 1996, p. 72.
- ^ Sampath 2019, p. [page needed].
- ^ Bhave 2009, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Jyotirmaya Sharma 2011, p. 128.
- ^ "Savarkar, Modi's mentor: The man who thought Gandhi a sissy". The Economist. 20 December 2014. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-253-05832-4. Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
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- ^ Kumar, M. (2006). History and Gender in Savarkar's Nationalist Writings. Social Scientist, 34(11/12), 33–50. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27644182 Archived 26 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark. "Gandhi vs. Terrorism." Daedalus, vol. 136, no. 1, 2007, pp. 30–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20028087 Archived 17 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 17 Aug. 2022.
- ^ Babli Sinha 2014, p. 129.
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- ^ a b c Chaturvedi 2022, p. 114.
- ^ Trehan 1991, p. 23.
- ^ "सावररांनी..." BBC News मराठी. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
- ^ "Nasik Conspiracy Case 1910". Bombay High court. Archived from the original on 9 April 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
- JSTOR 2186778.
- ^ Hamilton, P. ed., 1999. The permanent court of arbitration: international arbitration and dispute resolution. Kluwer Law International BV.[2] Archived 5 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Sampath 2019, p. 276.
- ^ Goldie 1972.
- ^ Palande 1958, p. 456.
- ^ Anderson 2003.
- ^ Wagner 2010, p. 14.
- ^ Palande 1958, p. 467.
- ^ Palande 1958, p. 478.
- ^ Majumdar 1975, pp. 211–213.
- ^ Takle 2016.
- ^ "Savarkar had begged the British for mercy". The Times of India. 3 May 2002. Archived from the original on 31 May 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
- ^ Palande 1958, p. 480.
- ^ Palande 1958, p. 469.
- ^ Sampath, Vikram (18 October 2019o). "Rahul Gandhi must reflect on why grandmother Indira called Savarkar a patriot". The Print. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
- ^ Palande 1958, pp. 472–476.
- ^ Noorani 2005.
- ^ Palande 1958, p. 477.
- ^ Palande 1958, p. 472.
- ^ McKean 1996, pp. 73, 79, 85.
- ^ Jha, D. (2023). Gandhi's Assassin: The Making of Nathuram Godse and His Idea of India. Verso Books.Page=23
- ^ Keer 1971, p. 54.
- ISBN 978-93-5194-083-8. Archivedfrom the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
- ^ a b Andersen 1972, pp. 673–682.
- ^ Malgonkar 2008, p. 13.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-5264-0. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ a b Amberish Diwanji (23 August 2004). "Who was Veer Savarkar?" (PHP). Archived from the original on 13 May 2006. Retrieved 28 July 2006.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0467-8. Archivedfrom the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ G.S. Bhargava. "Apotheosis of Jinnah?". The Tribune, Chandigarh. Archived from the original on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
- ^ a b Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1963). Collected Works of V.d. Savarkar. Maharashtra Prantik Hindusabha. pp. 479–480.
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- ISBN 978-93-325-4085-9.
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- ^ Manohar Malgaokar. "AUTHOR'S NOTE TO THE FIRST EDITION". indiaclub.com. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
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{{cite book}}
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As one of the intellectual founders of Hindu nationalism, Savarkar has emerged as the most controversial Indian political thinker of the last century, gaining notoriety for his program to "Hinduize Politics and Militarize Hindudom", for his anti-Muslim and anti-Christian politics, and for his advocacy of violence in everyday life.
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Savarkar had acquired an important public reputation throughout India, especially within the Hindu Mahasabha, for his nationalist and anti-Muslim writings, for his patriotic actions in India and Britain, and for having spent the bulk of his adult life as a political prisoner.
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Further reading
- Kumar, Megha (November–December 2006). "History and Gender in Savarkar's Nationalist Writings". Social Scientist. 34 (11/12): 33–50. JSTOR 27644182.
External links
- Official website – Savarkar National Memorial
- Savarkar's Hindu Pad-pada-shahi (PDF)