Violence against women

Murders per 100,000 population committed against women, 2019

Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence

violent acts primarily or exclusively committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime,^[4] committed against women or girls specifically because they are female

, and can take many forms.

VAW has a very long history, though the incidents and intensity of such violence have varied over time and even today vary between societies. Such violence is often seen as a mechanism for the subjugation of women, whether in society in general or in an interpersonal relationship. Such violence may arise from a sense of entitlement, superiority, misogyny or similar attitudes in the perpetrator or his violent nature, especially against women.

The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states, "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women" and "violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men."^[5]

Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, declared in a 2006 report posted on the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) website:

Violence against women and girls is a problem of pandemic proportions. At least one out of every three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her.^[6]

Definition

A number of international instruments that aim to eliminate violence against women and domestic violence have been enacted by various international bodies. These generally start with a definition of what such violence is, and a proposal to combat it. The Istanbul Convention (

Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence) of the Council of Europe describes VAW "as a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women" and defines VAW as "all acts of gender-based violence that result in or are likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological, or economic harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life".^[7]

The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) of the United Nations General Assembly makes recommendations relating to VAW,^[8] and the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action mention VAW.^[9] However, the 1993 United Nations General Assembly resolution on the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women was the first international instrument to explicitly define VAW and elaborate on the subject.^[10] Other definitions of VAW are set out in the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence Against Women^[11] and by the 2003 Maputo Protocol.^[12]

In addition, the term gender-based violence refers to "any acts or threats of acts intended to hurt or make women suffer physically, sexually, or psychologically, and which affect women because they are women or affect women disproportionately".^[13] Gender-based violence is often used interchangeably with violence against women,^[1] and some articles on VAW reiterate these conceptions by stating that men are the main perpetrators of this violence.^[14] Moreover, the definition stated by the 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women also supported the notion that violence is rooted in the inequality between men and women when the term violence is used together with the term gender-based.^[1]

In Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of women against violence, the Council of Europe stipulated that VAW "includes, but is not limited to, the following":^[15]

a. violence occurring in the family or domestic unit, including, inter alia, physical and mental aggression, emotional and psychological abuse, rape and sexual abuse, incest, rape between spouses, regular or occasional partners and cohabitants, crimes committed in the name of honour, female genital and sexual mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women such as forced marriages;

b. violence occurring within the general community, including, inter alia, rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in institutions or elsewhere; trafficking in women for the purposes of sexual exploitation, and economic exploitation and sex tourism;

c. violence perpetrated or condoned by the state or its officials;

d. violation of the human rights of women in situations of armed conflict, in particular the taking of hostages, forced displacement, systematic rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, and trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation and economic exploitation.

These definitions of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory. These definitions understand society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women.^[16] Opponents of such definitions argue that the definitions disregard violence against men and that the term gender, as used in gender-based violence, only refers to women. Other critics argue that employing the term gender in this particular way introduces notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity.^[17]^[18] There is no widely accepted current definition that covers all the dimensions of gender-based violence.^[19]

Comparison of definitions in human rights instruments
Document	Adopted by	Date	Definition
General Recommendation 19	CEDAW Committee	1992	'The definition of discrimination includes gender-based violence, that is, violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately.'^[20]
DEVAW	United Nations	20 December 1993	'...the term "violence against women" means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women'.^[21]
Belém do Pará Convention	Organization of American States	9 June 1994	'...violence against women shall be understood as any act or conduct, based on gender, which causes death or physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, whether in the public or the private sphere.'^[22]
Maputo Protocol	African Union	11 July 2003	'"Violence against women" means all acts perpetrated against women which cause or could cause them physical, sexual, psychological, and economic harm, including the threat to take such acts; or to undertake the imposition of arbitrary restrictions on or deprivation of fundamental freedoms in private or public life in peace time and during situations of armed conflicts or of war...'^[23]
Istanbul Convention	Council of Europe	11 May 2011	'..."violence against women" is understood as a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women and shall mean all acts of gender-based violence that result in, or are likely to result in, physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life; ... "gender" shall mean the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for women and men; "gender-based violence against women" shall mean violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately...'. The preamble notes: '...Recognising that women and girls are exposed to a higher risk of gender-based violence than men; Recognising that domestic violence affects women disproportionately, and that men may also be victims of domestic violence...'^[24]

Forms of violence

Violence against women can fit into several broad categories. These include violence carried out by individuals as well as by states. Some of the forms of violence perpetrated by individuals are:

trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks.^[19] Historically, there have been forms of organized WAV, such as the Witch trials in the early modern period or the sexual slavery of the comfort women

. The Gender Equality Commission of the Council of Europe identifies nine forms of violence against women based on subject and context rather than life cycle or time period:^[25]^[26]

'Violence within the family or domestic violence'
'Rape and sexual violence'
'Sexual harassment'
'Violence in institutional environments'
'Female genital mutilation'
'Forced marriages'
'Violence in conflict and post-conflict situations'
'Killings in the name of honour'
'Failure to respect freedom of choice with regard to reproduction'

By age groups

The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a typology of violence against women based on their cultural life cycles.

Phase	Type of violence
Pre-birth	Sex-selective abortion; effects of battering during pregnancy on birth outcomes
Infancy	Female infanticide; physical, sexual and psychological abuse
Girlhood	Child marriage; female genital mutilation; physical, sexual and psychological abuse; incest; child prostitution and pornography
Adolescence and adulthood	Dating and courtship violence (e.g. acid throwing and date rape); economically coerced sex (e.g. school girls having sex with "sugar daddies" in return for school fees); incest; sexual abuse in the workplace; rape; sexual harassment; forced prostitution and pornography; trafficking in women; partner violence; marital rape; dowry abuse and murders; partner homicide; psychological abuse; abuse of women with disabilities; forced pregnancy
Elderly	Forced "suicide" or homicide of widows for economic reasons; sexual, physical and psychological abuse^[27]

Sexual violence

Sexual harassment includes a range of actions with unwelcome sexual overtones, including verbal transgressions.^[28] Sexual violence is a broader term referring to the use of violence to obtain a sexual act, including, for example, trafficking.^[29]^[30] Sexual assault is usually defined as unwanted sexual contact^[31] and when this involves sexual penetration or sexual intercourse it is referred to as rape.

Women are most often the victims of rape, usually perpetrated by men known to them.^[32] The rate of reporting, prosecution, and convictions for rape vary considerably in different jurisdictions and reflect, to some extent, society's attitudes toward such crimes. It is considered the most underreported violent crime.^[33]^[34] Following a rape, a victim may face violence or threats of violence from the rapist and, in many cultures, from the victim's own family and relatives. Violence or intimidation of the victim may be perpetrated by the rapist or by friends and relatives of the rapist, as a way of preventing the victims from reporting the rape, punishing them for reporting it, or forcing them to withdraw the complaint; or it may be perpetrated by the relatives of the victim as a punishment for "bringing shame" to the family. Internationally, the incidence of rapes recorded by police during 2008 varied between 0.1 per 100,000 people in Egypt and 91.6 per 100,000 people in Lesotho with 4.9 per 100,000 people in Lithuania as the median.^[35] Around the world, rape is often not reported or handled properly by law enforcement for a wide variety of reasons.^[36]^[37]

In 2011, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that "nearly 20% of all women" in the United States suffered attempted rape or rape sometime in their lives. More than a third of the victims were raped before the age of 18.^[38]^[39]

Survival sex

Women who are sex workers end up in the profession for several reasons. Some were victims of sexual and domestic abuse. Many women have said they were raped as working girls. They may be apprehensive about coming forward and reporting their attacks. When reported, many women have said that the stigma was too great and that the police told them they deserved it and were reluctant to follow police policy. Decriminalizing sex work is argued to help sex workers in this aspect.^[40]

In some countries, it is common for older men to engage in "compensated dating" with underage girls. Such relationships are called

Sugar baby in return for school fees)" as a form of violence against women.^[27]

Kisaeng women from outcast or slave families.

Women from certain lower castes have been involved in prostitution as part of a tradition, called

Nat caste and, in Nepal, the Badi people.^[45]^[46]

Women with illegal resident status are disproportionately involved with prostitution. For example, in 1997, Le Monde diplomatique stated that 80% of prostitutes in Amsterdam were foreigners and 70% had no immigration papers.^[47]

Forced sexual services

By military forces

Brennus and His Share of the Spoils, by Paul Jamin

, 1893

ethnic Chinese woman from one of the Imperial Japanese Army's "comfort battalions" is interviewed by an Allied

officer.

Militarism produces special environments that allow for increased violence against women.

War rapes have accompanied warfare in virtually every known historical era.^[48] Rape in the course of war is mentioned multiple times in the Bible: "For I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to battle, and the city shall be taken and the houses plundered and the women raped..."Zechariah 14:2 "Their little children will be dashed to death before their eyes. Their homes will be sacked, and their wives will be raped."Isaiah 13:16

War rapes are rapes committed by soldiers, other combatants, or civilians during armed conflict or war or during military occupation, distinguished from sexual assaults and rapes committed amongst troops in military service. It also covers the situation where women are forced into prostitution or sexual slavery by an occupying power. During World War II, the Japanese military established brothels filled with "comfort women", girls and women who were forced into sexual slavery for soldiers, exploiting women for the purpose of creating access and entitlement for men.^[49]^[50] People rarely try to explain why rape happens in wars. One explanation that was floated around was that men in war have "urges".^[51]

Another example of violence against women incited by militarism during war took place in the

Kovno Ghetto. Jewish male prisoners had access to (and used) Jewish women forced into camp brothels by the Nazis, who also used them.^[52]

Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War by members of the Pakistani military and the militias that supported them led to 200,000 women being raped over a period of nine months. Rape during the Bosnian War was used as a highly systematized instrument of war by Serb armed forces, predominantly targeting women and girls of the Bosniak ethnic group for physical and moral destruction. Estimates of the number of women raped during the war range from 50,000 to 60,000; as of 2010 only 12 cases have been prosecuted.^[53]

The 1998

Rwandan Genocide as a war crime.^[54]

According to one report, the

Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant had killed over 150 women and girls in Fallujah who refused to participate in sexual jihad.^[59]

During the Rohingya genocide (2016–present), the Armed Forces of Myanmar, along with the Myanmar Border Guard Police and Buddhist militias of Rakhine, committed widespread gang rapes and other forms of sexual violence against the Rohingya Muslim women and girls. A January 2018 study estimated that the military and local Rakhine Buddhists perpetrated gang rapes and other forms of sexual violence against 18,000 Rohingya Muslim women and girls.^[60] The Human Rights Watch stated that gang rapes and sexual violence were committed as part of the military's ethnic cleansing campaign, while the United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, Pramila Patten, said that Rohingya women and girls were made the "systematic" target of rapes and sexual violence because of their ethnic identity and religion. Other forms of sexual violence included sexual slavery in military captivity, forced public nudity, and humiliation.^[61] Some women and girls were raped to death while others were found traumatised with raw wounds after they had arrived in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Human Rights Watch reported of a 15-year-old girl who was ruthlessly dragged on the ground for over 50 feet and then was raped by 10 Burmese soldiers.^[62]^[63]

By criminal groups

Human trafficking refers to the acquisition of persons by improper means such as force, fraud or deception, with the aim of

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children states,^[65]

"Trafficking in persons" shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.

Because of the illegal nature of trafficking, reliable data on its extent is very limited.[66] The WHO states "Current evidence strongly suggests that those who are trafficked into the sex industry and as domestic servants are more likely to be women and children."^[66] A 2006 study in Europe on trafficked women found that the women were subjected to serious forms of abuse, such as physical or sexual violence, that affected their physical and mental health.^[66]

Forced prostitution is prostitution that takes place as a result of coercion by a third party. In forced prostitution, the party/parties who force the victim to be subjected to unwanted sexual acts exercise control over the victim.^[67]

Sexual initiation rites

Sexual "cleansing" is a ceremony where girls have sexual intercourse as a cleansing ritual following their first menstruation^[68] and is referred to as kusasa fumbi in some regions of Malawi.^[69] Prepubescent girls are often sent to a training camp where women known as anamkungwi, or "key leaders," teach the girls how to cook, clean, and have sexual intercourse in order to be wives.^[70] After the training, a man known as a hyena performs the cleansing for 12- to 17-year-old females for three days and the girl is sometimes required to perform a bare-breasted dance, known as chisamba, to signal the end of her initiation in front of the community.^[71]

Domestic violence

Violence related to acquiring a partner

Single women and women who are economically independent have been vilified by certain groups of men. In Hassi Messaoud in Algeria in 2001, mobs targeted single women, attacking 95 and killing at least six^[72]^[73] and, in 2011, similar attacks happened again throughout Algeria.^[74]^[75]

Stalking is unwanted or obsessive attention by an individual or group toward another person, often manifested through persistent harassment, intimidation, or following/monitoring of the victim. Stalking is often understood as "a course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear.".^[76] Although stalkers are frequently portrayed as being strangers, they are most often known people, such as former or current partners, friends, colleagues or acquaintances. In the U.S., a survey by NVAW found that only 23% of female victims were stalked by strangers.^[77] Stalking by partners can be very dangerous, as sometimes it can escalate into severe violence, including murder.^[77] Police statistics from the 1990s in Australia indicated that 87.7% of stalking offenders were male and 82.4% of stalking victims were female.^[78]

An

scarring of the face and body.^[82]^[83] Such attacks are common in South Asia, in countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India; and in Southeast Asia, especially in Cambodia.^[84]

Forced marriage

Azeri custom of forced marriage, as depicted in the early 20th-century satirical periodical Molla Nasraddin

A forced marriage is a marriage in which one or both parties are married against their will. Forced marriages are common in South Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. The customs of bride price and dowry, which exist in many parts of the world, contribute to this practice. A forced marriage is also often the result of a dispute between families, where the dispute is 'resolved' by giving a female from one family to the other.^[85]

The custom of bride kidnapping continues to exist in some Central Asian countries, such as Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and the Caucasus, or in parts of Africa, especially Ethiopia. A girl or woman is abducted by the would-be groom, who is often helped by his friends. The victim is often raped by the would be groom, after which he may try to negotiate a bride price with the village elders to legitimize the marriage.^[86]

Forced and child marriages are practiced by some ofhabitants of Tanzania. Girls are sold by their families to older men for financial benefits, and often girls are married off as soon as they hit puberty, which can be as young as seven years old.^[87] To the older men, these young brides act as symbols of masculinity and accomplishment. Child brides endure forced sex, causing health risks and growth impediments.^[88] Primary education is usually not completed for young girls in forced marriages. Married and pregnant students are often discriminated against, expelled, and excluded from school.^[87] The Law of Marriage Act currently does not address issues with guardianship and child marriage. The issue of child marriage is not addressed enough in this law, and only establishes a minimum age of 18 for the boys of Tanzania. A minimum age needs to be enforced for girls to stop these practices and provide them with equal rights and a less harmful life.^[89]

Dowry violence

Bangalore, India

The custom of dowry, which is common in South Asia, especially in India, is the trigger of many forms of violence against women. Bride burning is a form of violence against women in which a bride is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to his dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. Dowry death refers to the phenomenon of women and girls being killed or committing suicide due to disputes regarding dowry. Dowry violence is common in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. In India, in 2011 alone, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths, while unofficial figures suggest the numbers to be at least three times higher.^[90]

Violence within a relationship

The relation between violence against women and marriage laws, regulations and traditions has also been discussed.

marriage by abduction, violence related to female premarital virginity). Claudia Card, professor of philosophy at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, writes:^[102]

The legal rights of access that married partners have to each other's persons, property, and lives makes it all but impossible for a spouse to defend herself (or himself), or to be protected against torture, rape, battery, stalking, mayhem, or murder by the other spouse... Legal marriage thus enlists state support for conditions conducive to murder and mayhem.

Physical

Women are more likely to be

victimized by someone that they are intimate with, commonly called "intimate partner violence" (IPV). Instances of IPV tend not to be reported to police and thus many experts find it hard to estimate the true magnitude of the problem.^[103] Though this form of violence is often considered as an issue within the context of heterosexual relationships, it also occurs in lesbian relationships,^[104] daughter-mother relationships, roommate relationships and other domestic relationships involving two women. Violence against women in lesbian relationships is about as common as violence against women in heterosexual relationships.^[105]

Women are much more likely than men to be

murdered by an intimate partner. In the United States, in 2005, 1181 women were killed by their intimate partners, compared to 329 men.^[106]^[107]

It is estimated that 30% or more of the women who are admitted to the ER could be victims of domestic violence

Latin American countries found the highest prevalence of domestic violence against women to be in Bolivia.^[113] In Western Europe, a country that has received major international criticism for the way it has dealt legally with the issue of violence against women is Finland; with authors pointing out that a high level of equality for women in the public sphere (as in Finland) should never be equated with equality in all other aspects of women's lives.^[114]^[115]^[116]

The American Psychiatric Association planning and research committees for the forthcoming DSM-5 (2013) have canvassed a series of new Relational disorders, which include Marital Conflict Disorder Without Violence or Marital Abuse Disorder (Marital Conflict Disorder With Violence).^[117]^{: 164, 166} Couples with marital disorders sometimes come to clinical attention because the couple recognize long-standing dissatisfaction with their marriage and come to the clinician on their own initiative or are referred by an astute health care professional. Secondly, there is serious violence in the marriage that is "usually the husband battering the wife".^[117]^: 163 In these cases the emergency room or a legal authority often is the first to notify the clinician. Most importantly, marital violence "is a major risk factor for serious injury and even death and women in violent marriages are at much greater risk of being seriously injured or killed (National Advisory Council on Violence Against Women 2000)".^[117]^: 166 The authors of this study add, "There is current considerable controversy over whether male-to-female marital violence is best regarded as a reflection of male psychopathology and control or whether there is an empirical base and clinical utility for conceptualizing these patterns as relational."^[117]^: 166

Recommendations for clinicians making a diagnosis of Marital Relational Disorder should include the assessment of actual or "potential" male violence as regularly as they assess the potential for suicide in depressed patients. Further, "clinicians should not relax their vigilance after a battered wife leaves her husband, because some data suggest that the period immediately following a marital separation is the period of greatest risk for the women. Many men will stalk and batter their wives in an effort to get them to return or punish them for leaving. Initial assessments of the potential for violence in a marriage can be supplemented by standardized interviews and questionnaires, which have been reliable and valid aids in exploring marital violence more systematically."^[117]^: 166

The authors conclude with what they call "very recent information"

intimidated his wife. The risk of violence remains strong in a marriage in which it has been a feature in the past. Thus, treatment is essential here; the clinician cannot just wait and watch."^[117]^{: 167, 168} The most urgent clinical priority is the protection of the wife because she is the one most frequently at risk, and clinicians must be aware that supporting assertiveness by a battered wife may lead to more beatings or even death.^[117]

^{: 167, 168}

Sexual

Marital or spousal rape was once widely condoned or ignored by law and is now widely considered unacceptable violence against women, repudiated by international conventions, and increasingly criminalized. Still, in many countries, spousal rape either remains legal or is illegal but is widely tolerated and accepted as a husband's prerogative. The criminalization of spousal rape is recent, having occurred during the past few decades. Traditional understanding and views of

self determination have started to be challenged in most Western countries during the 1960s and 1970s, which has led to the subsequent criminalization of marital rape during the following decades. With a few notable exceptions, it was during the past 30 years that most laws against marital rape have been enacted. Some countries in Scandinavia and in the former Communist Bloc of Europe made spousal rape illegal before 1970, but most Western countries criminalized it only in the 1980s and 1990s. In many parts of the world the laws against marital rape are very new, having been enacted in the 2000s.^[118]

In Canada, marital rape was made illegal in 1983, when several legal changes were made, including changing the rape statute to sexual assault and making the laws gender neutral.[119]^[120]^[121] In Ireland, spousal rape was outlawed in 1990.^[122] In the US, the criminalization of marital rape started in the mid-1970s, and in 1993, North Carolina became the last state to make marital rape illegal.^[123] In

Appellate Committee of the House of Lords, in the case of R v. R in 1991.^[124] In the Netherlands, marital rape was also made illegal in 1991.^[125] One of the last Western countries to criminalize marital rape was Germany, in 1997.^[126]

The relationship between some religions (

sex outside marriage, which is considered a sin) and states, "The wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does. And likewise, the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does. Do not deprive one another."^[127] Some conservative religious figures interpret this as rejecting to possibility of marital rape.^[128] Islam makes reference to sexual relations in marriage too, notably: "Allah's Apostle said, 'If a husband calls his wife to his bed (i.e. to have sexual relation) and she refuses and causes him to sleep in anger, the angels will curse her till morning';"^[129] and several comments on the issue of marital rape made by Muslim religious leaders have been criticized.^[130]^[131]

Dating abuse, or dating violence, is the perpetration of coercion, intimidation, or assault in the context of dating or courtship. It is also when one partner tries to maintain abusive power and control. Dating violence is defined by the CDC as "the physical, sexual, psychological, or emotional violence within a dating relationship, including stalking".^[132]

Widowhood related violence

Widows have been subjected to forced remarriage called widow inheritance, where they are forced to marry a male relative of their late husband.^[133] Another practice is the banned remarriage of widows, which is legal in India^[134] and Korea.^[135] A more extreme version is the ritual killing of widows, as seen in India and Fiji. Sati is the burning of widows, and although sati in India is today an almost defunct practice, isolated incidents have occurred in recent years, such as the 1987 sati of Roop Kanwar, as well as several incidents in rural areas in 2002^[136] and 2006.^[137] A traditional idea upheld in some places in Africa is that an unmarried widow is unholy and “disturbed” if she is unmarried and abstains from sex for some period of time. This fuels the practice of widow cleansing where the unmarried widow is required to have sexual intercourse as a form of ritual purification, which is commenced with a ceremony for the neighborhood to witness that she is now purified.^[138]

Unmarried widows are most likely to be accused and killed as witches.^[139]^[140] Witch trials in the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries) were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.^[141]

Non-intimate partner family violence

Infanticide and abandonment

one child policy

.

Son preference is a custom prevalent in many societies

orphanages, where the staff would leave the children in rooms to die of thirst, or starvation.^[144]^[145]

Another manifestation of son preference is the violence inflicted against mothers who give birth to girls.[146]

Body modification

Genitalia

FGM

road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons".^[147]

The WHO states: "The procedure has no health benefits for girls and women" and "Procedures can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, infertility, and complications in childbirth increase the risk of newborn deaths".^[147]

According to a UNICEF report, the top rates for FGM are in Somalia (with 98 percent of women affected), Guinea (96 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), Eritrea (89 percent), Mali (89 percent), Sierra Leone (88 percent), Sudan (88 percent), Gambia (76 percent), Burkina Faso (76 percent), Ethiopia (74 percent), Mauritania (69 percent), Liberia (66 percent), and Guinea-Bissau (50 percent).^[148] FGM is linked to cultural rites and customs, including traditional practices. It continues to take place in different communities in Africa and the Middle East, including in places where it is banned by national legislation. According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 125 million women and girls in Africa and the Middle East have experienced FGM.^[148] Due to globalization and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa and the Middle East to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.^[149]

Although FGM is today associated with developing countries, this practice was common until the 1970s in parts of the Western world, too. FGM was considered a standard medical procedure in the United States for most of the 19th and 20th centuries.

frigidity. The medicalization of FGM in the United States allowed these practices to continue until the second part of the 20th century, with some procedures covered by Blue Cross Blue Shield Insurance until 1977.^[151]^[150]

As of 2016, in Africa, FGM has been legally banned in Benin, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, and Zambia.

Istanbul Convention prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38).^[153]

Labia stretching, also referred to as labia elongation or labia pulling, is the act of lengthening the labia minora (the inner lips of the female genitals) through manual manipulation (pulling) or physical equipment (such as weights).^[154] It is often done by older women to girls.^[155]

Feet

bound feet

, China

Foot-binding was a practice in China done to reduce the size of feet in girls. It was seen as more desirable and was likely to make a more prestigious marriage.^[156]

Force-feeding

In some countries, notably Mauritania, young girls are forcibly fattened to prepare them for marriage because obesity is seen as desirable. This practice of force-feeding is known as leblouh or gavage.^[157] The practice dates back to the 11th century, and has been reported to have made a significant comeback after a military junta took over the country in 2008.^[158]

Honor killings

Campaign Against Lebanese Rape Law - Article 522 was launched in December 2016 to abolish the article that permitted a rapist to escape prison by marrying his victim. In Italy, before 1981, the Criminal Code provided for mitigating circumstances in case of a killing of a woman or her sexual partner for reasons related to honor, providing for a reduced sentence.^[164]^[165]

Honor killings are common in countries such as Afghanistan, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and Yemen.[162]^[166]^[167]^[168]^[169] Honor killings also occur in immigrant communities in Europe, the United States, and Canada. Although honor killings are most often associated with the Middle East and South Asia, they occur in other parts of the world too.^[160]^[170] In India, honor killings occur in the northern regions of the country, especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.^[171]^[172] In Turkey, honor killings are a serious problem in Southeastern Anatolia.^[173]^[174]

Pregnancy-related violence

Maternal Mortality Rate worldwide, as defined by the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management, excluding accidental or incidental causes.^[175]

reproductive health.^[179] According to the WHO, "discrimination in health care settings takes many forms and is often manifested when an individual or group is denied access to health care services that are otherwise available to others. It can also occur through denial of services that are only needed by certain groups, such as women."^[180]

Restrictions around menstruation

Women in some cultures are forced into social isolation during their menstrual periods. In parts of Nepal, for instance, they are forced to live in sheds, are forbidden to touch men or even to enter the courtyard of their own homes, and are barred from consuming milk, yogurt, butter, meat, and various other foods for fear they will contaminate those goods. Women have died during this period because of starvation, bad weather, or bites by snakes.^[181] In cultures where women are restricted from being in public places, by law or custom, women who break such restrictions often face violence.^[182]

Forced pregnancy

slaves (see Slave breeding in the United States). In the 20th century, state mandated forced marriage with the aim of increasing the population was practiced by some authoritarian governments, notably during the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, which systematically forced people into marriages ordering them to have children, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution.^[183]

The issue of forced continuation of pregnancy (i.e. denying a woman safe and legal abortion) is also seen by some organizations as a violation of women's rights. For example, the

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women considers the criminalization of abortion a "violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights" and a form of "gender based violence".^[184]

In addition, in some parts of Latin America, with very strict anti-abortion laws, pregnant women avoid the medical system due to fear of being investigated by the authorities if they have a miscarriage, or a stillbirth, or other problems with the pregnancy. Prosecuting such women is quite common in places such as El Salvador.^[185]^[186]^[187]^[188]

Forced sterilization and forced abortion

forced sterilization (Article 39).^[190] According to the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women, all "women are guaranteed the right to decide freely and responsibly on the number of and spacing of their children, and to have access to information, education, and means to enable them to exercise these rights."^[191]

Studies show forced sterilizations often target socially and politically disadvantaged groups such as racial and ethnic minorities, the poor, and indigenous populations.

Puerto Rican-American women were coerced into sterilization programs, with Native Americans and African Americans especially being targeted.^[192] Records have shown that Native American girls as young as eleven years-old had hysterectomy operations performed.^[194]

In Europe, there have been a number of lawsuits and accusations towards the

European Court for Human Rights (see V. C. vs. Slovakia, N. B. vs. Slovakia and I.G. and Others vs. Slovakia).^[196]

In Peru, in 1995, Alberto Fujimori launched a family planning initiative that especially targeted poor and indigenous women. In total, over 215,000 women were sterilized, with over 200,000 believed to have been coerced.^[197] In 2002, Health Minister Fernando Carbone admitted that the government gave misleading information, offered food incentives, and threatened to fine parents if they had additional children. The procedures have also been found to have been negligent, with less than half using proper anesthetic.^[198]

In China, the

one child policy included forced abortions and forced sterilization.^[199] Forced sterilization is also practiced in Uzbekistan.^[200]^[201]

Women-specific state restrictions

religious police beating an Afghan woman in Kabul

on 26 August 2001

Dress

In

September 2022 Iranian protests which was triggered in response to the killing of Mahsa Amini, who was allegedly beaten to death by police due to wearing an "improper hijab". In Saudi Arabia, after the Grand Mosque seizure of 1979, it became mandatory for women to veil in public^[205] but this was no longer required since 2018. ^[206] In Afghanistan, since May 2022, women are required to wear a hijab and face covering in public. ^[207]

The hijab has seen bans in places such as Austria,[208] Yugoslavia, ^[209] Kosovo,^[210] Kazakhstan,^[211] the Soviet Union,^[212] and Tunisia.^[213] On 8 January 1936,^[214] Reza Shah issued a decree, Kashf-e hijab, banning all veils.^[203] To enforce this decree, the police were ordered to physically remove the veil from any woman who wore it in public. Women who refused were beaten, their headscarves and chadors torn off, and their homes forcibly searched.^[215]

Freedom of movement

Women are, in many parts of the world, severely restricted in their freedom of movement. Freedom of movement is an essential right, recognized by international instruments, including Article 15 (4) of

CEDAW.^[216] Nevertheless, in some countries, women are not legally allowed to leave home without a male guardian (male relative or husband).^[217] Saudi Arabia was the only country in the world where women were forbidden to drive motor vehicles until June 2018.^[218]

Sexuality

Sex crimes such as adultery and

flogging. This has been seen in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Pakistan, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and some states in Nigeria.^[219] Additionally this can deter victims of sexual violence from reporting the crime, because the victims may themselves be punished (if they cannot prove their case, if they are deemed to have been in the company of an unrelated male, or if they were unmarried and not virgins at the time of the rape).^[220]^[221] Another aspect is the denial of medical care often occurs with regard to reproductive and sexual health. Sometimes women themselves avoid the medical system for fear of being reported to the police or facing family violence due to having premarital sex or being the victims of sexual violence.^[222]

Violence in specific areas

Male-dominated spheres

Politics

Violence Against Women in Politics (VAWP) is the act or threat of physical, emotional or psychological violence against female politicians on the basis of their gender, most often with the intent of discouraging the victims and other female politicians from participating in the political process. VAWP has been growing in significance among the fields of gendered political science and feminist political theory studies. The main intent behind creating a separate category that is distinct from Violence Against Women, is to highlight the barriers faced by women who work in politics, or wish to pursue a career in the political realm. VAWP is unique from Violence Against Women in three important ways: victims are targeted because of their gender; the violence itself can be gendered (i.e., sexism, sexual violence); the primary goal is to deter women from participating in politics (including but not limited to voting, running for office, campaigning, etc.).^[223] It is also important to distinguish VAWP from political violence, which is defined by the use or threats of force to reach political ends, and can be experienced by all politicians.^[224]

While women's participation in national parliaments has been increasing, rising from 11% in 1995 to 26.5% in 2023, there is still a large disparity between male and female

representation in governmental politics.^[225] Expanding women's participation in government is a crucial goal for many countries, as female politicians have proven invaluable with respect to bringing certain issues to the forefront, such as elimination of gender-based violence, parental leave and childcare, pensions, gender-equality laws, electoral reform, and providing fresh perspectives on numerous policy areas that have typically remained a male-dominated realm.^[225] In order to increase women's participation in an effective manner, the importance of recognizing the issues related to VAWP and making every effort to provide the necessary resources to victims and condemn any and all hostile behaviour in political institutions cannot be understated. Experiencing VAWP can dissuade women from remaining in politics (and lead to an early exit from their career or from aspiring higher political office. Witnessing women in politics experience VAWP can serve as one of many deterrents for aspirants to run for office and for candidates to continue campaigning.^[224]

Acts of violence or harassment are often not deemed to be gendered when they are reported, if they are reported at all. VAWP is often dismissed as "the cost of doing politics" and reporting can be seen as "political suicide", which contributes to the normalization of VAWP.^[224] This ambiguity results in a lack of information regarding attacks and makes the issue appear to be relatively commonplace. While it is reported that women in politics are more often targeted by violence than their male counterparts,^[226] the specific cause is often not reported as a gendered crime. This makes it more difficult to pinpoint where the links between gender-specific violence and political violence really are. In many countries, the practice of electoral politics is traditionally considered to be a masculine domain.^[227]

The history of male dominated politics has allowed some male politicians to believe they have a right to participate in politics while women should not, since women's participation is a threat to the social order. Women in positions of power are thus more likely than their male counterparts to receive threats and experience violence. As one professor of sociology, Marie E. Berry, wrote: "as women are trained and encouraged to vie for these seats, they risk taking power (and resources) that male politicians see as rightfully theirs, opening them up to the risk of violence and other efforts to limit the effectiveness of their campaigns."^[228]^[229]

48% of electoral violence against women is against supporters, this is most likely the largest percentage as it has the largest amount of the public participating. 9% of electoral violence against women is targeting candidates, while 22% targets female voters. This means that women who are directly acting in politics are likely to face some form of violence, whether physical or emotional.^[230] Regarding violence against female politicians, younger women and those with intersecting identities, particularly racial and ethnic minorities, are more likely to be targets. Female politicians who outwardly express and act from feminist perspectives are also more likely to be victimized.^[224]

Sub-types

Gabrielle Bardell's 2011 report: "Breaking the mold: Understanding Gender and Electoral Violence" was one of the first documents published that showed examples and figures for how women are intimidated and attacked in politics.^[230] Since Bardall's report, other scholars have conducted further research on the topic. Notably, Mona Lena Krook's work on VAWP introduced 5 forms of violence and harassment: physical, sexual, psychological, economic, and semiotic/symbolic. Physical violence encompasses inflicting, or attempting to inflict, bodily harm and injury.^[224]^[231] While physical violence is the most easily identified form, it is actually the least common type. ^[224]Sexual violence involves (attempts at) sexual acts through coercion, including unwanted sexual comments, advances, and harassment.^[224]^[231] Psychological violence includes causing emotional and mental damage through means of death/rape threats, stalking, etc.^[224]^[231] Economic violence involves denying, withholding, and controlling female politicians’ access to financial resources, particularly regarding campaigns.^[224]^[231] Semiotic or symbolic violence, the most abstract subtype of VAWP, refers to the erasure of female politicians through degrading images and sexist language.^[224]^[231]^[232] Krook theorizes that semiotic violence against women in politics works in two related ways: rendering women invisible and rendering women incompetent. By symbolically removing women from the public political sphere, semiotic violence renders women invisible. Examples include using masculine grammar when speaking about and to political women, interrupting female politicians, and not portraying political women in the media. By highlighting the role incongruity between stereotypically feminine attributes (e.g., warm, polite, submissive), and traits typically ascribed to good leaders (e.g., strong, powerful, assertive), semiotic violence emphasizes that women are incompetent to be political actors.^[232] This form of semiotic violence can manifest through denying and minimizing women's political qualifications, sexual objectification, and labeling political women as emotional, among other actions.^[232]

Higher education

Sexual violence on college campuses is considered a major problem in the United States. According to the conclusion of a major Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study: "The CSA Study data suggest women at universities are at considerable risk for experiencing sexual assault."^[233]

Sports

Sport-related violence against women is any physical, sexual, mental acts that are "perpetrated by both male athletes and by male fans or consumers of sport and sporting events, as well as by coaches of female athletes".

2010 World Cup, the Olympic and Commonwealth Games "have highlighted the connections between sports spectatorship and intimate partner violence, and the need for police, authorities and services to be aware of this when planning sporting events".^[234] Sport-related violence occurs in various contexts and places, including homes, pubs, clubs, hotel rooms, the streets.^[234]

Violence against women is a topic of concern in the United States' collegiate athletic community. From the 2010 UVA lacrosse murder, in which a male athlete was charged guilty with second degree murder of his girlfriend, to the 2004 University of Colorado Football Scandal when players were charged with nine alleged sexual assaults,[235] studies suggest that athletes are at higher risk for committing sexual assault against women than the average student.^[236]^[237] It is reported that one in three college assaults are committed by athletes.^[238] Surveys suggest that male student athletes who represent 3.3% of the college population, commit 19% of reported sexual assaults and 35% of domestic violence.^[239] The theories that surround these statistics range from misrepresentation of the student-athlete to an unhealthy mentality towards women within the team itself.^[238] Sociologist Timothy Curry, after conducting an observational analysis of two big time sports' locker room conversations, deduced that the high risk of male student athletes for gender abuse is a result of the team's subculture.^[240] Curry states, "Their locker room talk generally treated women as objects, encouraged sexist attitudes toward women and, in its extreme, promoted rape culture."^[240] He proposes that this objectification is a way for the male to reaffirm his heterosexual status and hyper-masculinity. Claims have been made that the atmosphere changes when an outsider (especially women) intrude in the locker room.^[241]

In the wake of the reporter Lisa Olson being harassed by a Patriots player in the locker room in 1990, she said, "We are taught to think we must have done something wrong and it took me a while to realize I hadn't done anything wrong."^[241] Other female sports reporters (college and professional) have said that they often brush off the players' comments, which leads to further objectification.^[241] Some sociologists challenge this assertion. Steve Chandler says that because of their celebrity status on campus, "athletes are more likely to be scrutinized or falsely accused than non-athletes."^[237] Stephanie Mak says that "if one considers the 1998 estimates that about three million women were battered and almost one million raped, the proportion of incidences^[spelling?] that involve athletes in comparison to the regular population is relatively small."^[238]

In response to the proposed link between college athletes and gender-based violence, and media coverage holding universities as responsible for these scandals more universities are requiring athletes to attend workshops that promote awareness. For example, St. John's University holds sexual assault awareness classes in the fall for its incoming student athletes.^[242] Other groups, such as the National Coalition Against Violent Athletes, have formed to provide support for the victims as their mission statement reads, "The NCAVA works to eliminate off the field violence by athletes through the implementation of prevention methods that recognize and promote the positive leadership potential of athletes within their communities. In order to eliminate violence, the NCAVA is dedicated to empowering individuals affected by athlete violence through comprehensive services including advocacy, education and counseling."^[243]

Military

A 1995 study of female war veterans found that 90 percent had been sexually harassed. A 2003 survey found that 30 percent of female vets said they were raped in the military and a 2004 study of veterans who were seeking help for post-traumatic stress disorder found that 71 percent of the women said they were sexually assaulted or raped while serving.^[244]

In 2021, The New York Times reported that about one in four women in the military had experienced sexual assault.^[245] Until the end of 2023, these reports went through the service member's chain-of-command, and many women reported that their reports were dismissed without due process and/or resulted in professional reprisal, ostracism, or other maltreatment.^[246] Beginning in December 2023, however, sexual assault reports are handled outside of the chain-of-command, hopefully reducing biases in the process of investigation.^[247]

Online

Cyberbullying

cyber violence, as reported by the United Nations Broadband Commission in 2015.^[249] Misogynistic rhetoric is prevalent online, and the public debate over gender-based attacks has increased significantly, leading to calls for policy interventions and better responses by social networks like Facebook and Twitter.^[250]^[251] Some specialists have argued that gendered online attacks should be given particular attention within the wider category of hate speech.^[252] Abusers quickly identified opportunities online to humiliate their victims, destroy their careers, reputations and relationships, and even drive them to suicide or "trigger so-called 'honor' violence in societies where sex outside of marriage is seen as bringing shame on a family".^[253]

According to a poll conducted by Amnesty International in 2018 across 8 countries, 23% of women have experienced online abuse of harassment. These are often sexist or misogynistic in nature and include direct of indirect threats of physical or sexual violence, abuse targeting aspects of their personality and privacy violations.[254] According to Human Rights Watch, 90% of those who experienced sexual violence online in 2019 were women and girls.^[253]

Journalists

According to UNESCO,^[255] women journalists in prominent and visible positions tend to attract more virulent abuse. In their survey of 901 journalists, nearly three quarters (73%) said they had experienced online violence.^[256] In another survey by The Guardian that looked at comments received on articles, women writers were 4 times more likely to be abused compared to their male counterparts.^[257] This is a trend that is persistent across geography - in the Netherlands, 82% of the 300 female journalists surveyed in 2022 said they encountered abuse online.^[258]

Generative AI

cyber harassment, misinformation, and impersonation - all of which rank in the top five most common vectors of technology-facilitated gender-based violence - have a much wider reach and be more dangerous.^[255]

Effect on society

According to an article published in the

Health and Human Rights journal,^[259] regardless of many years of advocacy and involvement of many feminist activist organizations, the issue of violence against women still "remains one of the most pervasive forms of human rights violations worldwide".^[259]^: 91 The violence against women can occur in both public and private spheres of life and at any time of their life span. Violence against women often keeps women from wholly contributing to social, economic, and political development of their communities.^[259]^[260] Many women are terrified by these threats of violence and this essentially influences their lives so that they are impeded to exercise their human rights; for instance, they fear contributing to the development of their communities socially, economically, and politically.^[260] Apart from that, the causes that trigger VAW or gender-based violence can go beyond just the issue of gender and into the issues of age, class, culture, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and specific geographical area of their origins.^{[citation needed}

]

Most often, violence against women has been framed as a health issue, and also as a

violation of human rights. The research seems to provide convincing evidence that violence against women is a severe and pervasive problem the world over, with devastating effects on the health and well-being of women and children.^[261]

Importantly, other than the issue of social divisions, gendered violence can also extend into the realm of health issues and become a direct concern of the public health sector.^[262] A health issue such as HIV/AIDS is another cause that also leads to violence. Women who have HIV/AIDS infection are also among the targets of the violence.^[259]^: 91 The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that violence against women puts an undue burden on health care services, as women who have suffered violence are more likely to need health services and at higher cost, compared to women who have not suffered violence.^[111] The Council of Europe describes violence against women in private sphere, at home or domestic violence, as the main reason of "death and disability" among the women who encountered violence.^[259]^: 91

In addition, several studies have shown a link between poor treatment of women and international violence. These studies show that one of the best predictors of inter- and intranational violence is the maltreatment of women in the society.^[263]^[264]

Prevalence and extent

According to the UN, "there is no region of the world, no country and no culture in which women's freedom from violence has been secured."

Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of bride price (such as violence, trafficking, and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania (also see Lobolo).^[265]^[266]

A study in 2002 estimated that at least one in five women in the world had been physically or sexually abused by a man sometime in their lives, and "gender-based violence accounts for as much death and ill-health in women aged 15–44 years as cancer, and is a greater cause of ill-health than malaria and traffic accidents combined."[267]

A 2007 survey by the National Institute of Justice found that 19.0% of college women and 6.1% of college men experienced either sexual assault or attempted sexual assault since entering college.^[268] In the University of Pennsylvania Law Review in 2017, D. Tuerkheimer reviewed the literature on rape allegations, and reported on the problems surrounding the credibility of rape victims, and how that relates to false rape accusations. She pointed to national survey data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that indicates 1 in every 5 women (and 1 in 71 men) will be raped during their lifetime at some point. Despite the prevalence of rape and the fact that false rape allegations are rare, Tuerkheimer reported that law enforcement officers often default to disbelief about an alleged rape. This documented prejudice leads to reduced investigation and criminal justice outcomes that are faulty compared to other crimes. Tuerkheimer says that women face "credibility discounts" at all stages of the justice system, including from police, jurors, judges, and prosecutors. These credibility discounts are especially pronounced when the victim is acquainted with the accuser, and the vast majority of rapes fall into this category.^[269] The U.S. Department of Justice estimated from 2005 to 2007 that about 2% of victims who were raped while incapacitated (from drugs, alcohol, or other reasons) reported the rape to the police, compared to 13% of victims who experienced physically forced sexual assault.^[268]

Many kinds of violence against women (specifically rape, sexual assault, and domestic violence) are under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject.^[270]^[271] It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable and continuous data is an obstacle to forming a clear picture of violence against women.^[261]

Demographics

Acts of violence against women are often not unique episodes, but are ongoing over time. More often than not, the violence is perpetrated by someone the woman knows, not by a stranger.^[271]

High risk groups

Indigenous people

Indigenous women around the world are often targets of sexual assault or physical violence. Many indigenous communities are rural, with few resources and little help from the government or non-state actors. These groups also often have strained relationships with law enforcement, making prosecution difficult. Many indigenous societies also find themselves at the center of land disputes between nations and ethnic groups, often resulting in these communities bearing the brunt of national and ethnic conflicts.^[272]

Violence against indigenous women is often perpetrated by the state, such as in

forced sterilization program put in place by his administration.^[273] During his presidency, Fujimori put in place a program of forced sterilizations against indigenous people (mainly the Quechuas and the Aymaras), in the name of a "public health plan", presented 28 July 1995.^{[citation needed}

]

Many countries have higher rates of violence against indigenous women than non‐indigenous women. This includes Bolivia,

Canada,^[277] which has a national average of violence against women falling except for aboriginal populations.^[278]

Guatemalan indigenous women have also faced extensive violence. Throughout over three decades of conflict, Maya women and girls have continued to be targeted.^{[citation needed]} The Commission for Historical Clarification found that 88% of women affected by state-sponsored rape and sexual violence against women were indigenous.^{[citation needed]}

The concept of white dominion over indigenous women's bodies has been rooted in American history since the beginning of colonization. The theory of manifest destiny went beyond simple land extension and into the belief that European settlers had the right to exploit Native women's bodies as a method of taming and "humanizing" them.^[278]^[279]

In the United States, Native American women are more than twice as likely to experience violence than any other demographic.^[278] One in three Native women is sexually assaulted during her life, and 67% of these assaults are perpetrated by non-Natives,^[280]^[278]^[281] with Native Americans constituting 0.7% of U.S. population in 2015.^[282] The disproportionate rate of assault to indigenous women is due to a variety of causes, including but not limited to the historical legal inability of tribes to prosecute on their own on the reservation. The federal Violence Against Women Act was reauthorized in 2013, which for the first time gave tribes jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute felony domestic violence offenses involving Native American and non-Native offenders on the reservation,^[283] as 26% of Natives live on reservations.^[284]^[285] In 2019 the Democrat House passed H.R. 1585 (Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2019) by a vote of 263–158, which increases tribes' prosecution rights much further. However, in the Republican Senate its progress has stalled.^[286]

Immigrants and refugees

Immigrant and refugee women often face violence, both in the private sphere (by partners and other family members) and in the public sphere (by the police and other authorities). These women are often in a vulnerable position: they do not speak the language of the country they are in, they do not know its laws, and sometimes they are in a legal position where they may be deported if they make contact with the authorities. Women who seek protection from armed conflict in their countries of origin often face more violence while travelling to the destination country or when they arrive there.^[287]^[288] Women refugees face violence from both the journey facilitator and the detention center guards. Journey facilitator rapes in exchange for money for their passage where as male guards sexually violates in exchange for faster refugee case process. These women have already been through a lot in their country because of wars and political instability and now while in search of freedom they face all kind of gender based Violences.^[289]

Transgender women

domestic violence shelters, as some shelters do not accept them.^[291]^[295] In 2018, more than two dozen transgender people were violently killed in the United States, most of them women of color.^[296]^[297]

Activism

Memorial in Minto Park, Ottawa, of the victims of the École Polytechnique massacre

Background and history

Activism refers to "a doctrine or practice that emphasizes direct vigorous action especially in support of or opposition to one side of a controversial issue".^[298] In the activism for violence against women, the objectives are to address and draw public attention on the issues of VAW as well as seek and recommend measures to prevent and eliminate this violence.^[299] Many scholarly articles suggest that the VAW is considered as a violation of human rights^[300]^[301]^[302] as well as "public health issue".^[303]

The emergence of the first women's movements, or so called the first wave of feminism, dated back in the years the late 19th Century and early 20th Century in the United States and Europe. During this period, feminist movements developed from the context of industrialization and liberal politics that triggered the rise of feminist groups concerned with gaining equal access and opportunity for women.^[304]^: 1 This wave marks a period of "suffrage, independence, rights to nationality, work and equal pay" for women.^[305]

The third wave of feminism is the newest wave of feminism led by young feminists whose understanding and context are of the globalized world order and the technological advances that have come with it. Also, this wave is a transition of the fall communism^[304]^: 17 to more complex issues of new kinds of 'warfare'^{[clarification needed]}, threats and violence. This new wave also "embraces ambiguity"^[304]^: 16 and introduced a feminist approach of 'intersectionality' that includes the issues of race, gender, age, and class.^[304]^: 17 Other than that, the third wave marks a period of feminism dealing with identity politics, body politics as well as the issues of violence.^[306]

Papua New Guineans show their support for putting an end to violence against women during a White Ribbon Day

march.

Nonetheless, the VAW movement was initiated in the 1970s where some feminist movements started to bring the discussion on the issue of violence into the feminist discourse [307] and that many other groups, on the national as well as international levels, had attempted to push for the betterment of women through lobbying of the state officials and delegates, demanding the conferences on 'gender issues'.^[305]

Levels of activist movements

On the local or national level, the VAW movements are diverse and differ in their strategic program of intervention. The strategies used in a number of the movements focus on the individual level with the emphases on individuals, relationships and family. Also, many of them take the 'preventive' as an approach to tackle the issues on the ground by encouraging people to "reexamine their attitudes and beliefs" in order to trigger and create fundamental changes in these "deep-rooted beliefs and behaviors".^[303] Despite the fact that these strategies can be life changing,^{[clarification needed]} helpful to those who participate and feasible over a long time frame, the effects on societal level seem to be restricted and of minimal effects. In order to achieve the objectives of the movement, many activists and scholars argue that they have to initiate changes in cultural attitudes and norms on a communal level.^[308]

On the transnational or regional level, the anti-violence movements also deploy different strategies based on the specificities of their cultures and beliefs in their particular regions. On this level, the activist movements are known as "transnational feminist networks" or TFNs.^[300]^: 556 The TFNs have a significant effect, like the autonomous movements on the national level, in shaping sets of policies as well pushing for the recognition and inclusion of language of VAW in the United Nations human rights mechanisms: the international human rights agreements.^[300] Their activities are ranging from lobbying the policy makers; organizing demonstrations on the local and regional levels; to creating institutional pressure that could push for changes in the international institutional measures.^[300]

On an international level, the movements that advocate for women's rights and against VAW are the mixture of (civil society) actors from domestic and regional levels. The objectives of these VAW movements focus on "creating shared expectations" within the domestic and regional levels as well as "mobilizing numbers of domestic civil society" to create "standards in global civil society".^[300]^: 556 The global women's movement works to transform numbers of international conventions and conferences to "a conference on women's rights" by pushing for a "stronger language and clearer recognition" of the VAW issues. In addition, the United Nations also plays a vital role in promoting and campaigning for the VAW movements on the international level.^[309]

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also a global initiative with a target to eliminate all forms of violence against women.^[310]In recent years, there has been a trend of approaching VAW at an international level through means such as conventions or, in the European Union, through directives (such as the directive against sexual harassment, and the directive against human trafficking).^[311]^[312]

Second order sexual harassment (SOSH)

Second-order sexual harassment (SOSH) is the

UN General Assembly passed its first resolution calling for the protection of defenders of women's human rights.^[314] The resolution urges states to put in place gender-specific laws and policies for the protection of women's human rights defenders and to ensure that defenders themselves are involved in the design and implementation of these measures, and calls on states to protect women's human rights defenders from reprisals for cooperating with the UN and to ensure their unhindered access to and communication with international human rights bodies and mechanisms.^[315]

Legal enforcement

As violence is often committed by a family member, women first started by lobbying their governments to set up shelters for domestic violence survivors. The Julia Burgos Protected House established in Puerto Rico in 1979 was the first shelter in Latin America and the Caribbean for "battered women".^[citation needed] In 2003, 18 out of the 20 countries in the region had legislation on domestic or family violence, and 11 countries addressed sexual violence in their laws. Legislative measures to protect victims can include restraining orders, which can be found in Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Paraguay, Venezuela, Turkey, the United States and many western European countries for instance.^{[citation needed]}

Courts can also be allowed by law (Germany, 2001) to order the perpetrator to leave the home so that victims do not have to seek shelter. Countries were urged to repeal discriminatory legislation by 2005 following the review of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action in 2000. Egypt, for instance, abolished a law that exempted men from rape charges when marrying their victims. However, the goal of antiviolence legislation is often to keep the families together, regardless of the best interests of women, which perpetuate domestic violence.^[259]

Challenges faced by women in accessing justice and limitations of measures

There can be a de jure or de facto acceptance of violent behaviors and lack of remedies for victims.^[259]

Lack of criminalization: in many places, acts of abuse, especially acts such as female genital mutilation, marital rape, forced marriage and child marriage, are not criminalized, or are illegal but widely tolerated, with the laws against them being rarely enforced. There are instances where crimes against women are also categorized as minor offenses.
Lack of awareness of the existing laws: in many places, although there are laws against violence on the books, many women do not know of their existence. This is especially the case with marital rape – its criminalization being very recent in most countries.^[316]
Challenges in making a case in court: the burden of proof can be placed on the victim. For instance in the Philippines, before a change in law in 1997, rape used to be described as a crime against chastity; and virginity played an important role in court. In various countries, such as Bangladesh, a woman's past sexual experience continues to be very important in a case of rape. Bangladesh has received criticism for its employment of the "two-finger test" in rape investigations. This test consists in a physical examination of women who report rape during which a doctor inserts two fingers in the woman's vagina to determine whether the woman is "habituated to sex". This examination has its origin in the country's colonial-era laws dating back to 1872. The test deters many women from reporting incidents of rape. More than 100 experts, including doctors, lawyers, police, and women's rights activists had signed a joint statement in 2013 asking for the test, which they called "demeaning", to be abolished, as it "does not provide any evidence that is relevant to proving the offence". This test is also performed in several other countries in the region, including India.^[317] It can also be difficult to make a case of sexual assault in court, when members of the judiciary expect evidence of severe struggle and injury as determinative evidence of non-consent. On the other hand, there are measures, such as the 2012 law in Brazil, that allow for cases to be filed even without the representation of the victim.
Existing laws are insufficient, conflicting, and have no effect in practice: some laws on domestic violence, for instance, conflict with other provisions and ultimately contradict their goals. Legal frameworks can also be flawed when laws that integrate protection do so in isolation, notably in relation to immigration laws.^{[citation needed]} Undocumented women in countries where they would have, in theory, access to justice, do not in practice for fear of being denounced and deported. The CEDAW Committee recommends that a State authority's obligation to report undocumented persons be repealed in national legislation.^{[citation needed]}

Invoking culture to explain particular forms of violence against women risks appearing to legitimize them. There is also debate and controversy about the ways in which cultural traditions, local customs and social expectations, as well as various interpretations of religion, interact with abusive practices.^[261]^[318] Specifically, cultural justifications for certain violent acts against women are asserted by some states and social groups within many countries claiming to defend their traditions. These justifications are questionable precisely because the defenses are generally voiced by political leaders or traditional authorities, not by those actually affected.^[261]

Measures to address violence against women range from access to legal-aid to the provision of shelters and hotlines for victims. Despite advances in legislation and policies, the lack of implementation of the measures put in place prevents significant progress in eradicating violence against women globally. This failure to apply existing laws and procedures is often due to the persisting issue of gender stereotyping.^[319]

Accessibility of police

Women who report acts of violence most often come into contact first with police workers. Therefore, police attitudes are crucial in facilitating a sense of safety and comfort for women who have been victimized.^[320]^[321] When police officers misuse their power as agents of the state to physically and sexually harass and assault victims, the survivors, including women, feel much less able to report the violence.^[322] Human rights violations perpetrated by police and military personnel in many countries are correlated with decreased access to public health services and increased practices of risky behavior among members of vulnerable groups, such as women and female sex workers.^[323] These practices are especially widespread in settings with a weak rule of law and low levels of police and military management and professionalism. Police abuse in this context has been linked to a wide range of risky behaviors and health outcomes, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance abuse.^[323]^[324] Extortion of sexual services and police sexual abuse have been linked to a decrease in condom use and an elevated risk of STI and HIV infections among vulnerable groups.^[323]^[325]

Some countries, such as Brazil and Jordan, have enacted women's police station, which are police stations that specialize in certain crimes, such as sexual violence, harassment, domestic violence committed against women.^{[citation needed]}

Intervention versus autonomy

It is standard procedure for police to force entry into the victim's home even after the victim's numerous requests for them to go away.^[326] Government agencies often disregard the victim's right to freedom of association with their perpetrator.^[327]

International protection regimes

Efforts to fight violence against women can take many forms and access to justice, or lack thereof, for such violence varies greatly depending on the justice system. International and regional instruments are increasingly used as the basis for national legislation and policies to eradicate violence against women. Experts in the international community generally believe that solely enacting punitive legislation for prevention and punishment of violence against women is not sufficient to address the problem. For example, although much stricter laws on violence against women have been passed in Bangladesh, violence against women is still rising.^[267] And violence against women has risen dramatically around the world since the late 2010s despite similar measures being taken in many regions as well as increased awareness and discussion of the subject.^[328]^[329]^[330] Instead, it is thought that wide societal changes to address gender inequalities and women's empowerment will be the way to reduce violence against women.^[261]^[267]^[331]^[111]

Africa

In Africa, there emerged a series of regional meetings and agreements, which was triggered by the UN processes on the international level such as Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, 1985; the 1993 Kampala Prep Com; the 1994 Africa-wide UN women's conference^[332] that led to the identification of VAW as a critical issue in the Southern African Women's Charter.^[300]^: 557

Americas

In the Americas, the Inter-American Convention on Violence Against Women, which was formally announced and adopted by the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1994, immediately after the Vienna Conference^[300]^: 557 The Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Eradicate and Punish Violence Against Women – also known as the Belém do Parà Convention, for instance, has been applied by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) in its first case of domestic violence to condemn Brazil in the Maria da Penha case. This led the Brazilian government to enact in 2006 the Maria da Penha Law, the country's first law against domestic violence against women.^[333]

Asia

In Asia, there is the South Asian Agreement on Regional Cooperation's (SAARC) Protocol to End Trafficking in Women and Children.^[259]

Europe

In Europe, the

Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, is the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of domestic violence and violence against women,^[334] and came into force in 2014.^[335]

Countries which ratify it must ensure that the forms of violence defined in its text are outlawed. In its Preamble, the Convention states that "the realisation of de jure and de facto equality between women and men is a key element in the prevention of violence against women". The convention also provides a definition of domestic violence as "all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence that occur within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim".^[336] Although it is a Convention of the Council of Europe, it is open to accession by any country.^[337]

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This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from Technology-facilitated gender-based violence in an era of generative AI, Chowdhury, Rumman, UNESCO.

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^ "Discrimination kills 230,000 girls under five in India each year, study shows". The Guardian. 15 May 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2018.

^ Thurston, Anne F. (1 April 1996). "In a Chinese Orphanage". The Atlantic. Retrieved 10 January 2024.

^ Staff, P. R. I. (1 January 1996). "The dying rooms: Chinese orphanages adopt a 'zero population growth policy'". PRI. Retrieved 10 January 2024.

^ News articles:
Sarwary, Bilal (30 January 2012). "Afghan woman is killed 'for giving birth to a girl'". BBC News. Kabul, Afghanistan. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

Agarwal, Keshav (23 March 2017). "23-year-old woman killed for giving birth to twin daughters". The Times of India. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

"56 killed for giving birth to girl child in Pakistan". Deccan Chronicle. Hyderabad, Telangana, India. 27 November 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

^ ^a ^b WHO (June 2000). Female genital mutilation (factsheet). World Health Organization. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ ^a ^b UNICEF (22 July 2013). Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change (PDF). UNICEF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 April 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

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^ Citations:
Lyons, Kate (24 November 2015). "The Gambia bans female genital mutilation". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

Richards, Kimberly (3 June 2015). "History has been made: female genital mutilation banned in Nigeria". A Plus
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UNFPA (December 2015). Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions. United Nations Population Fund
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^ Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. 12 April 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2017.

^ "Rwandan Women View The Elongation Of Their Labia As Positive", retrieved on 18 June 2008

^ "Labia stretching: Why some British girls are told to do it". BBC News. BBC. 7 April 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2018.

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^ Citations:
Popenoe, Rebecca (2004). "Getting fat". In Popenoe, Rebecca (ed.). Feeding desire: fatness, beauty, and sexuality among a Saharan people. London New York: Routledge. pp. 33–50.
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Book review: Fan (3 August 2012). "Space and body modification: Rebecca Popenoe's Feeding Desire (blog)". Savage Mind via WordPress. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2016.

LaFraniere, Sharon (4 July 2007). "In Mauritania, seeking to end an overfed ideal". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 June 2011. Girls as young as 5 and as old as 19 had to drink up to five gallons of fat-rich camel's or cow's milk daily, aiming for silvery stretch marks on their upper arms. If a girl refused or vomited, the village weight-gain specialist might squeeze her foot between sticks, pull her ear, pinch her inner thigh, bend her finger backward or force her to drink her own vomit. In extreme cases, girls die, due to a burst stomach. The practice was known as gavage, a French term for force-feeding geese to obtain foie gras.

^ Smith, Alex Duval (1 March 2009). "Girls being force-fed for marriage as junta revives fattening farms". The Observer. Retrieved 22 December 2015.

^ "the role of community in combating honor killings". web.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 30 September 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2018.

^ ^a ^b ^c "Ethics guide – Honour crimes". BBC. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ "Definition of honor killing". merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ ^a ^b Harter, Pascale (14 June 2011). "Libya rape victims 'face honour killings'". BBC News. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ Relevant articles:
PTI (19 March 2011). "Rape victim threatened to withdraw case in UP". Zee News. Mumbai, India: Essel Group. Retrieved 3 February 2013.

"Stigmatization of rape & honor killings". WISE Muslim Women. Women's Islamic Initiative in Spirituality and Equality. 31 January 2002. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2013.

Harter, Pascale (14 June 2011). "Libya rape victims 'face honour killings'". BBC News. Retrieved 3 February 2013.

"Morocco protest after raped Amina Filali kills herself". BBC News. 15 March 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2013.

ProQuest 1011050411
.

^ Barazzetti, Donatella; Garreffa, Franca; Marsico, Rosaria (July 2007). Daphne Project "Proposing new indicators: measuring violence's effects, GVEI (Gender Violence Effects Indicators)" (PDF). Rende, Italy: Centre Women's Studies "Milly Villa", University of Calabria. Before 1981, Art. 587 read: He who causes the death of a spouse, daughter, or sister upon discovering her in illegitimate carnal relations and in the heat of passion caused by the offence to his honour or that of his family will be sentenced to three to seven years. The same sentence shall apply to whom, in the above circumstances, causes the death of the person involved in illegitimate carnal relations with his spouse, daughter, or sister.

^ UN Women. "Violence against women: work of the General Assembly on violence against women". un.org/womenwatch. UN Women, Violence Against Women. Retrieved 18 November 2013.
Listing for:
UN Secretary-General (2 July 2002). Working towards the elimination of crimes against women committed in the name of honour. United Nations General Assembly. A/57/169. Arabic pdf. Chinese pdf. French pdf. Russian pdf. Spanish pdf.

^ Ghanizada (9 June 2013). "240 cases of honor killing recorded in Afghanistan, AIHRC". Afghanistan: Khaama Press. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ UPI (10 June 2013). "AIHRC: 400 rape, honor killings registered in Afghanistan in 2 years". Latin Business Today. Kabul, Afghanistan. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ Bayoumy, Yara; Kami, Aseel (6 March 2012). ""Honor killings" require tougher laws, say Iraqi women". Reuters. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ "International Domestic Violence Issues". sanctuaryforfamilies.org. Sanctuary for Families. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014.

^ Donald, Alice; Bishop, Hilary. "World agenda: what justice?". BBC World Service. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ "India court seeks 'honour killing' response". BBC News. 21 June 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ Rainsford, Sarah (19 October 2005). "'Honour' crime defiance in Turkey". BBC News. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ Kardam, Filiz (2005). Murray, Genevra (ed.). The dynamics of honor killings in Turkey: prospects for action. United Nations Development Programme, Population Association (Turkey) and United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Pdf. Archived 11 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine

^ Country Comparison: Maternal Mortality Rate Archived 8 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine in The CIA World Factbook. Date of Information: 2010

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^ WHO (1996). Care in normal birth: a practical guide. Safe Motherhood Practical Guide. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. WHO/FRH/MSM/96.24. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2013. Pdf.
Also as:
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^ WHO (2015). "Sexual and reproductive health: Prevention and elimination of disrespect and abuse during childbirth". who.int. World Health Organization. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
See also:
WHO (2015). WHO statement: The prevention and elimination of disrespect and abuse during facility-based childbirth (PDF). Human Reproduction Programme (HRP). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. WHO/RHR/14.23.

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^ "Joint United Nations statement on ending discrimination in health care settings". www.who.int.

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"Nepal criminalises banishing menstruating women to huts". BBC News. 10 August 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

"Nepali girl dies due to banned mensuration practice". Al Jazeera. December 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

^ "Freedom of movement and women's economic empowerment". Empower Women. February 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

^ Anderson, Natalae (22 September 2010). Memorandum: Charging forced marriage as a crime against humanity (PDF). Documentation Center of Cambodia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.

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^ "El Salvador: Rape survivor sentenced to 30 years in jail under extreme anti-abortion law". www.amnesty.org. 6 July 2017.

^ "Jailed for a miscarriage". BBC News.

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^ Vincenti Carpio, Myla (2004). "The Lost Generation: American Indian Women and Sterilization Abuse". Social Justice. 31 (4): 40–53.

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^ Goldberg, Justin (14 November 2012). "European Court of Human Rights Finds Slovakia violated Romani women's rights in another involuntary sterilization case". Center for Reproductive Rights. Retrieved 10 January 2024.

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^ "Mass sterilisation scandal shocks Peru". BBC News. 24 July 2002. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

^ Citations:
Jackson, Allison (9 April 2013). "China: Mother of 2 dies after forced sterilization". GlobalPost. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

AI (22 April 2010). "Thousands at risk of forced sterilization in China". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 29 May 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

"China forced abortion photo sparks outrage". BBC News. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

Hawk, David (2012). The Hidden Gulag (PDF) (2nd ed.). Washington DC: The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea.
OCLC 793983613
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^ Antelava, Natalia (12 April 2012). "Uzbekistan's policy of secretly sterilising women". BBC World Service. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

^ Natalia Antelava (reporter) and Wesley Stephenson (producer) (16 April 2012). Forced sterilisation in Uzbekistan (Audio). Crossing Continents. BBC Radio 4. 20:30 minutes in. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

ISSN 1735-4730

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^ Abdelhadi, Magdi Tunisia attacked over headscarves, BBC News, 26 September 2006. Accessed 6 June 2008.

^ "How did Reza Pahlavi's dictatorship affect Iranian women?". navideshahed.com.

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^ Batha, Emma (29 September 2013). "FACTBOX: Stoning - where does it happen?". Thomson Reuters Foundation News. Thomson Reuters Foundation. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2013.

^ Lang, Olivia (26 February 2013). "Maldives girl to get 100 lashes for pre-marital sex". BBC News. Retrieved 19 November 2013.

Today. NBC. Associated Press. Archived from the original
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^ katharina.kiener-manu. "Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice Module 9 Key Issues: Topic 1 - Gender-based discrimination and women in conflict with the law". www.unodc.org. Retrieved 10 January 2024.

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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Violence Against Women in Politics". Journal of Democracy. Retrieved 26 March 2023.

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^ ^a ^b ^c Mak, Stephanie (2004). "Are athletes more abusive than the rest of the student population?". Hopkins Undergraduate Research Journal Online. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2012.

^ "Game stats". The National Coalition Against Violent Athletes (NCVA). Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
Citing:
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See also:
Benedict, Jeff; Keteyian, Armen (2013). The system: the glory and scandal of big-time college football. New York: Doubleday.
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^ Newsom, John (22 March 1992). "Share on emailShare on redditMore Sharing Services Few Colleges Tackle Issue of Athlete Sex Assaults". Los Angeles Times Online. Retrieved 12 March 2012.

^ "Mission". National Coalition Against Violent Athletes. Archived from the original on 16 April 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2012.

^ Benedict, Helen (6 May 2009). "The plight of women soldiers". The Nation. NPR. Retrieved 10 November 2012.

^ Wenner Moyer, Melinda (2021). "'A Poison in the System': The Epidemic of Military Sexual Assault". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 January 2021.

^ "Prevalence of Sexual Assault in the Military: Risk and Protective Factors, Data Sources, and Data Uses". 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2024.

^ "Sexual Assault Now Tried Outside Military Chain of Command". U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 10 January 2024.

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^ Filipovic, Jill (2007). "Blogging while female: how internet misogyny parallels real-world harassment". Yale Journal of Law and Feminism. 19 (2). Yale Law School: 295–303. Pdf.

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^ ^a ^b "Internet Bringing New Forms of Violence Against Women". Human Rights Watch. 28 October 2019.

^ "Read about violence against women online in 2018". www.amnesty.org. 10 December 2018.

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^ UNESCO (2021). "The Chilling: global trends in online violence against women journalists; research discussion paper".

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^ International Press Institute (24 March 2023). "Netherlands: Women journalists facing widespread online harassment". International Press Institute. Retrieved 7 February 2024.

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Danis, Fran S.; Lockhart, Lettie (Spring–Summer 2003). "Guest Editorial – Domestic violence and social work education: what do we know, what do we need to know?". Journal of Social Work Education, Special Section: Domestic Violence and Social Work Education. 39 (2).
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^ Maffly, Brian (21 March 2009). "BYU study links women's safety, nation's peace". The Salt Lake Tribune. Archived from the original on 2 February 2010.

^ Strearmer, Matthew; Emmett, Chad F. (2007). The great divide: Revealing differences in the Islamic world regarding the status of women and its impact on international peace (PDF). WomanStats Project. Retrieved 6 August 2014. Paper prepared for presentation at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, Illinois, 29 August – 1 September 2007.

^ "Papua New Guinea: police cite bride price major factor in marital violence". Island Business. 21 November 2011. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2014 – via Violence is not our Culture.

^ "An exploratory study of bride price and domestic violence in Bundibugyo District, Uganda" (PDF). Centre for Human Rights Advancement (CEHURA) and South African Medical Research Council. April 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 July 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2014.

^
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^ ^a ^b Krebs, Christopher P.; Lindquist, Christine H.; Warner, Tara D.; Fisher, Bonnie S.; Martin, Sandra L. (December 2007). "The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study" (PDF). National Institute of Justice.

^ Deborah, Tuerkheimer (2017). "Incredible Women: Sexual Violence and the Credibility Discount". University of Pennsylvania Law Review. 166 (1).

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Krug, Etienne G.; Dahlberg, Linda L.; Mercy, James A.; Zwi, Anthony B.; Lozano, Rafael (5 October 2002). "The world report on violence and health". S2CID 20828803
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^ "Mass sterilization scandal shocks Peru". BBC News. 24 July 2002. Retrieved 30 April 2006.

^ UN (June 2014). Thematic paper on the elimination and responses to violence, exploitation and abuse of indigenous girls, adolescents and young women (PDF) (Report). Inter-agency Support Group on Indigenous Peoples' Issues. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

^ Dhillon, Jaskiran; Allooloo, Siku (14 December 2015). "Violence against indigenous women is woven into Canada's history". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

^ Shiriari, Sara (30 April 2015). "Bolivia struggles with gender-based violence". Al Jazeera America. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

^ Sinha, Maire, ed. (2006). Measuring violence against women: statistical trends 2006 (85-570-XWE) (PDF). Juristat. Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada. p. 19.
Citing:
Brennan, Shannon (2011). Violent victimization of Aboriginal women in the Canadian provinces, 2009. Juristat. Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada. Catalogue no. 85-002.

Perreault, Samuel (2011). Violent victimization of Aboriginal women in the Canadian provinces, 2009. Juristat. Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada. Catalogue no. 85-002.

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^ Policy Insights - Brief Statistics on Violence Against Native Women (PDF). NCAI Policy Research Center. 2013. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2020. A previously reported statistic that, "Among [American Indian and Alaska Native] victims of rape or sexual assault, 86 percent described the offender as non‐Indian" is accurate according to Perry's analysis (2004) in American Indians and Crime: A BJS Statistical Profile, 1992-2002. However, Perry's analysis includes reports by both Native men and women victims of rape or sexual assault. Given this brief's focus on violence against Native women, we include the updated rate of 67 percent reported by Native women victims of rape or sexual assault indicated in Bachman, et al., (2008).

^ Chekuru, Kavitha (6 March 2013). "Sexual violence scars Native American Women". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

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^ Milke, Mark (12 January 2013). "Increasing number of Aboriginals choose not to live on reserves". Calgary Herald and Regina Leader Post. Retrieved 23 December 2019.

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^ American Psychological Association (2018). APA Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Girls and Women (PDF) (Report). p. 11. Transgender women are at a notably higher risk of violence than their cisgender counterparts...especially transgender women of color

^ ^a ^b Brown, Taylor N.T.; Herman, Jody L. (2015). "Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Abuse Among LGBT People: A Review of Existing Research" (PDF). The Williams Institute: UCLA School of Law.

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^ "On preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence: Instanbul Convention" (PDF). Council of Europe Convention. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2015.

Further reading

Almosaed, Nora (2004). "Violence against women: a cross-cultural perspective". S2CID 144455844
.

Appiah, Kwame Anthony (21 September 2010). "Convincing other cultures to change". Big Think. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013.

Bellemare, Marc F.; Steinmetz, Tara L. (17 June 2013). "All in the family: explaining the persistence of female genital cutting in the Gambia". SSRN 2280086. Pdf.

Dobash, Russell P.; Dobash, R. Emerson (2016). Women, violence and social change. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
ISBN 9781138174023
.

S2CID 141709189
.

Heise, L (1993). "Violence against women: the hidden health burden". World Health Statistics Quarterly. Rapport Trimestriel de Statistiques Sanitaires Mondiales. 46 (1): 78–85.
OCLC 654453001
.

James, Stanlie M. (Summer 1998). "Shades of othering: reflections on female circumcision/genital mutilation". S2CID 144380933
.

Jones, Helen; Diop, Nafissatou; Askew, Ian; Kaboré, Inoussa (September 1999). "Female genital cutting practices in Burkina Faso and Mali and their negative health outcomes". PMID 10546313
.

Jones, Wanda K.; Smith, Jack; Kieke Jr., Burney; Wilcox, Lynne (September 1997). "Female genital mutilation/female circumcision: who is at risk in the US?". PMID 9323387. Pdf.

S2CID 143985481
.

Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female genital cutting: a harmless practice?". PMID 12846114. Pdf. Archived 9 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine

Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Herniund, Yiva (August 2006). "Are there "Stages of Change" in the practice of female genital cutting?: Qualitative research findings from Senegal and The Gambia". African Journal of Reproductive Health. 10 (2). Women's Health and Action Research Centre (WHARC): 57–71.
PMID 17217118
.

Skaine, Rosemarie (2005). Female genital mutilation: legal, cultural, and medical issues. Jefferson, North Caroline: McFarland & Company, Inc.
ISBN 9780786421671
.

Wagner, Natascha (March 2013). Why female genital cutting persist? (PDF). Working Paper. University of Rotterdam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2017.

True, Jacqui (2012). The political economy of violence against women. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780199755912
.

Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007). "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history". S2CID 29006442
.

Williams, Lindy; Sobieszczyk, Teresa (November 1997). "Attitudes surrounding the continuation of female circumcision in the Sudan: passing the tradition to the next generation". JSTOR 353796
.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Violence against women.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Violence against women.

Violence against women at
Curlie

Violence against women, a factsheet on
ECtHR
case law

Virtual Knowledge Centre to End Violence against Women and Girls (in English, French, and Spanish)

UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences

World Health Organization's reports on FGM, Health complications of female genital mutilation

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ABS (7 September 2004). "Sexual assault in Australia: a statistical overview, 2004". abs.gov.au. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 31 December 2010.

Myhill, Andy; Allen, Jonathan (2002). Rape and sexual assault of women: findings from the British Crime Survey (PDF). Home Office Findings No. 159. London: Home Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2010.

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