Adder
Common European adder | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Order: | Squamata |
Suborder: | Serpentes |
Family: | Viperidae |
Genus: | Vipera |
Species: | V. berus
|
Binomial name | |
Vipera berus | |
Synonyms[2] | |
Species synonymy
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Vipera berus, also known as the common European adder[3] and the common European viper,[4] is a species of venomous snake in the family Viperidae. The species is extremely widespread and can be found throughout much of Europe, and as far as East Asia.[2] There are three recognised subspecies.
Known by a host of common names including common adder and common viper, the adder has been the subject of much folklore in Britain and other European countries.
The common adder is found in different terrains,
Taxonomy
There are three subspecies of V. berus that are recognised as being valid including the
Subspecies[8] | Taxon author[8] | Common name | Geographic range |
---|---|---|---|
V. b. berus | (Linnaeus, 1758) | Common European Adder[3][page needed] | Northwest China (north Xinjiang )
|
V. b. bosniensis | Boettger, 1889 | Balkan Cross Adder[9] | Balkan Peninsula
|
V. b. sachalinensis | Zarevskij, 1917 | Sakhalin Island Adder[10] | Russian Far East (Amur Oblast, Primorskye Kray, Khabarovsk Kray, Sakhalin Island), North Korea, Northeast China (Jilin) |
The subspecies V. b. bosniensis and V. b. sachalinensis have been regarded as full species in some recent publications.[3][page needed]
The name 'adder' is derived from nædre, an
In keeping with its wide distribution and familiarity through the ages, Vipera berus has a large number of common names in English, which include:
- Common European adder,[3][page needed] common European viper,[4] European viper,[12] northern viper,[13] adder, common adder, crossed viper, European adder,[10] common viper, European common viper, cross adder,[9] or common cross adder.[14]
In Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the snake is known as hugorm, hoggorm and huggorm, roughly translated as 'striking snake'. In Finland, it is known as kyykäärme or simply kyy, in Estonia it is known as rästik, while in Lithuania it is known as angis. In Poland the snake is called żmija zygzakowata, which translates as 'zigzag viper', due to the pattern on its back.
Description
Relatively thick-bodied, adults usually grow to 60 cm (24 in) in total length (including tail), with an average of 55 cm (22 in).[3][page needed] Maximum size varies by region. The largest, at over 90 cm (35 in), are found in Scandinavia; specimens of 104 cm (41 in) have been observed there on two occasions. In France and Great Britain, the maximum size is 80–87 cm (31–34 in).[3][page needed] Mass ranges from 50 g (1.8 oz) to about 180 grams (6.3 oz).[15][16]
The head is fairly large and distinct and its sides are almost flat and vertical. The edge of the snout is usually raised into a low ridge. Seen from above, the rostral scale is not visible, or only just. Immediately behind the rostral, there are two (rarely one) small scales.
Dorsally, there are usually five large plates: a squarish
The eye is relatively large—equal in size or slightly larger than the nasal scale—but often smaller in females. Below the supraoculars are six to 13 (usually eight to 10) small
Midbody there are 21
The colour pattern varies, ranging from very light-coloured specimens with small, incomplete, dark dorsal crossbars to entirely brown ones with faint or clear, darker brown markings, and on to melanistic individuals that are entirely dark and lack any apparent dorsal pattern. However, most have some kind of zigzag dorsal pattern down the entire length of their bodies and tails. The head usually has a distinctive dark V or X on the back. A dark streak runs from the eye to the neck and continues as a longitudinal series of spots along the flanks.[3][page needed]
Unusually for snakes, it is often possible to distinguish the sexes by their colour. Females are usually brownish in hue with dark-brown markings, the males are pure grey with black markings. The basal colour of males will often be slightly lighter than that of the females, making the black zigzag pattern stand out. The melanistic individuals are often females.
Distribution and habitat
Vipera berus has a wide range. It can be found across the
In several European countries, it is notable as being the only native venomous snake. It is one of only three snake species native to Britain. The other two, the
Sufficient habitat complexity is a crucial requirement for the presence of this species, in order to support its various behaviours—basking, foraging, and hibernation—as well as to offer some protection from predators and human harassment.[3][page needed] It is found in a variety of habitats, including: chalky downs, rocky hillsides, moors, sandy heaths, meadows, rough commons, edges of woods, sunny glades and clearings, bushy slopes and hedgerows, dumps, coastal dunes, and stone quarries. It will venture into wetlands if dry ground is available nearby and thus may be found on the banks of streams, lakes, and ponds.[19]
In much of southern Europe, such as southern France and northern Italy, it is found in either low lying wetlands or at high altitudes. In the Swiss Alps, it may ascend to about 3,000 m (9,800 ft). In Hungary and Russia, it avoids open steppeland; a habitat in which V. ursinii is more likely to occur. In Russia, however, it does occur in the forest steppe zone.[19]
Conservation status
In
This species is listed as protected (Appendix III) under the
The
Behaviour
This species is mainly diurnal, especially in the north of its range. Further south it is said[28] to be active in the evening, and it may even be active at night during the summer months. It is predominantly a terrestrial species, although it has been known to climb up banks and into low bushes in order to bask or search for prey.[19]
Adders are not usually aggressive, tending to be rather timid and biting only when cornered or alarmed. People are generally bitten only after stepping on them or attempting to pick them up. They will usually disappear into the undergrowth at a hint of any danger, but will return once all is quiet, often to the same spot. Occasionally, individual snakes will reveal their presence with a loud and sustained hissing, presumably to warn off potential aggressors. Often, these turn out to be pregnant females. When the adder is threatened, the front part of the body is drawn into an S-shape to prepare for a strike.[19]
The species is cold-adapted and hibernates in the winter. In Great Britain, males and females hibernate for about 150 and 180 days, respectively. In northern Sweden hibernation lasts 8–9 months. On mild winter days, they may emerge to bask where the snow has melted and will often travel across snow. About 15% of adults and 30–40% of juveniles die during hibernation.[3][page needed]
Feeding
Their diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as mice, rats, voles, and shrews, as well as lizards. Sometimes, slow worms are taken, and even weasels and moles. Adders also feed on amphibians, such as frogs, newts, and salamanders. Birds are also reported[29] to be consumed, especially nestlings and even eggs, for which they will climb into shrubbery and bushes. Generally, diet varies depending on locality.[19] Juveniles will eat nestling mammals, small lizards and frogs as well as worms and spiders. One important dietary source for young adders is the alpine salamander (salamadra atra).[30] Because both species live at higher altitudes, S. atra could be a prevalent food source for adders, since there may be few other animals.[30] One study suggests that alpine salamanders could consist of almost half of the adders' diets in some locations.[30] They have been witnessed swallowing these salamanders in the early morning hours.[30]
Once they reach about 30 cm (0.98 ft) in length, their diet begins to resemble that of the adults.[3][page needed]
Reproduction
In Hungary, mating takes place in the last week of April, whilst in the north it happens later (in the second week of May). Mating has also been observed in June and even early October, but it is not known if this autumn mating results in any offspring.[3][page needed] Females often breed once every two years,[19] or even once every three years if the seasons are short and the climate is not conducive.[3][page needed]
Males find females by following their scent trails, sometimes tracking them for hundreds of metres a day. If a female is found and then flees, the male follows. Courtship involves side-by-side parallel 'flowing' behaviour, tongue flicking along the back and excited lashing of the tail. Pairs stay together for one or two days after mating. Males chase away their rivals and engage in combat. Often, this also starts with the aforementioned flowing behaviour before culminating in the dramatic 'adder dance'.[3][page needed] In this act, the males confront each other, raise up the front part of the body vertically, make swaying movements and attempt to push each other to the ground. This is repeated until one of the two becomes exhausted and crawls off to find another mate. Appleby (1971) notes that he has never seen an intruder win one of these contests, as if the frustrated defender is so aroused by courtship that he refuses to lose his chance to mate.[31] There is no record of any biting taking place during these bouts.[19]
Females usually give birth in August or September, but sometimes as early as July, or as late as early October. Litters range in size from 3 to 20. The young are usually born encased in a transparent sac from which they must free themselves. Sometimes, they succeed in freeing themselves from this membrane while still inside the female.
Neonates measure 14 to 23 cm (5.5 to 9.1 in) in total length (including tail), with an average total length of 17 cm (6.7 in). They are born with a fully functional venom apparatus and a reserve supply of yolk within their bodies. They shed their skins for the first time within a day or two. Females do not appear to take much interest in their offspring, but the young have been observed to remain near their mothers for several days after birth.[19]
Venom
Because of the rapid rate of human expansion throughout the range of this species, bites are relatively common. Domestic animals and livestock are frequent victims. In Great Britain, most instances occur in March–October. In Sweden, there are about 1,300 bites a year, with an estimated 12% that require hospitalisation.[3][page needed] At least eight different antivenoms are available against bites from this species.[32]
Mallow et al. (2003) describe the venom toxicity as being relatively low compared to other viper species. They cite Minton (1974) who reported the
Local symptoms include immediate and intense pain, followed after a few minutes (but perhaps by as much as 30 minutes) by swelling and a tingling sensation. Blisters containing blood are not common. The pain may spread within a few hours, along with tenderness and inflammation. Reddish lymphangitic lines and bruising may appear, and the whole limb can become swollen and bruised within 24 hours. Swelling may also spread to the trunk, and with children, throughout the entire body. Necrosis and intracompartmental syndromes are very rare.[6]
Systemic symptoms resulting from
Folklore
Adders were believed to be deaf, which is mentioned in
References
- ^ . Retrieved 8 August 2023.
- ^ ISBN 1-893777-01-4(volume).
- ^ ISBN 0-89464-877-2.
- ^ ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
- ^ a b c d "Everyday Adders – the Adder in Folklore". The Herpetological Conservation Trust. Archived from the original on 3 October 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- ^ PMID 16308385.
- ISBN 0-7137-1704-1.
- ^ a b c "Vipera berus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 15 August 2006.
- ^ ISBN 0-8386-1023-4.
- ^ ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
- ^ "adder". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- ISBN 0-486-26629-X.
- ^ Vipera berus at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 21 November 2007.
- ^ ISBN 0-398-02808-7.
- PMC 1688262. (includes chart showing range of male mass in one population)
- ^ Strugariu, Alexandru; Zamfirescu, Ştefan R.; Gherghel, Iulian (2009). "First record of the adder (Vipera berus berus) in Argeș County (Southern Romania)". Biharean Biologist. 3 (2): 164. Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013. (gives example masses of females).
- S2CID 83947746.
- ^ "Adder (Vipera berus)". ARKive. Archived from the original on 7 November 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
- ^ ISBN 0-7134-1374-3.
- ^ "Adder (Vipera berus) - facts and status". ARKive. Archived from the original on 11 July 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2010. This ref cites Beebee T, & Griffiths R. (2000) Amphibians and Reptiles: a Natural History of the British Herpetofauna.[permanent dead link] London: Harper Collins Publishers Ltd. as the source.
- ^ "Hoggorm". WWF Norway (in Norwegian).
- ^ "Hugorm". Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark. Miljø- og Fødevareministeriet. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
- ^ Monney JC, Meyer A (2005). Rote Liste der gefährdeten Reptilien der Schweiz. Hrsg. Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft BUWAL, Bern und Koordinationsstelle für Amphibien- und Reptilienschutz der Schweiz, Bern. BUWAL-Reihe.
- ^ "Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix III". Council of Europe. 19 September 1979. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
- ISBN 978-2-8317-1435-6. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
- S2CID 92204234.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
- ^ Boulenger, G.A. (1913). Snakes of Europe. London: Methuen & Co. pp. xi + 269 (Vipera berus, pp. 230-239, Figure 35).
- ISBN 1-4446-3091-1. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
- ^ ISSN 0173-5373.
- ISBN 0-212-98393-8.
- ^ "Vipera berus antivenoms". Munich AntiVenom INdex (MAVIN). Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2006.
- ^ "Giftschlangen: Tod durch Kreuzotterbiss?" [Venomous snakes: death from adder bite?]. Gemeinsames Giftinformationszentrum Erfurt (in German). 4 May 2004. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
- ^ "Don't pick up snakes warn officials after man is bitten in Yorkshire forest". The Yorkshire Post. 7 August 2014. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
- ^ McKillop, Ann (April 2021). "Advice on Adder Bites". First Aid Training Co-operative.
- ^ "Rekordmange bitt av hoggorm" [Record number of bites from vipers]. Aftenposten (in Norwegian). 9 July 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
- ISBN 978-0192100191.
Further reading
- Ananjeva NB, Borkin LJ, Darevsky IS, Orlov NL (1998). [Amphibians and Reptiles. Encyclopedia of Nature of Russia]. Moscow: ABF. (in Russian).
- ISBN 0-00-219318-3. (Vipera berus, pp. 217–218 + Plate 39 + Map 122).
- Boulenger GA (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the...Viperidæ. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. (Vipera berus, pp. 476–481).
- ISBN 0-7167-0020-4. (Vipera berus, pp. 122, 188, 334).
- Jan G, Sordelli F (1874). Iconographie générale des Ophidiens: Quarante-cinquième Livraison. Paris: Baillière. Index + Plates I.- VI. (Vipera berus, Plate II, Figure 1; var. prester, Plate II, Figures 2-4; var. concolor, Plate II, Figure 5; var. lymnaea, Plate II, Figure 6).
- Joger U, Lenk P, Baran I, Böhme W, Ziegler T, Heidrich P, Wink M (1997). "The phylogenetic position of Vipera barani and of Vipera nikolskii within the Vipera berus complex". Herpetologica Bonnensis 185-194.
- Linnaeus C (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 824 pp. (Coluber berus, p. 217).
- ISBN 978-0-398-03051-3.
- Jacques Cattell. New York: Ronald Press. viii + 185 pp. (The common viper, Vipera berus, pp. 154–155, 182).
- Wüster W, Allum CSE, Bjargardóttir IB, Bailey KL, Dawson KJ, Guenioui J, Lewis J, McGurk J, Moore AG, Niskanen M, Pollard CP. (2004). "Do aposematism and Batesian mimicry require bright colours? A test, using European viper markings". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271: 2495–2499. PDF[permanent dead link] at Wolfgang Wüster, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor. Accessed 15 August 2006.
External links
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