Virtue

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Cardinal and Theological Virtues by Raphael, 1511

A virtue (

valued as an end purpose of life or a foundational principle of being. In human practical ethics, a virtue is a disposition to choose actions that succeed in showing high moral standards: doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong in a given field of endeavour, even when doing so may be unnecessary from a utilitarian perspective. When someone takes pleasure in doing what is right, even when it is difficult or initially unpleasant, they can establish virtue as a habit. Such a person is said to be virtuous through having cultivated such a disposition. The opposite of virtue is vice
, and the vicious person takes pleasure in habitual wrong-doing to their detriment.

Other examples of this notion include the concept of merit in Asian traditions as well as De (Chinese ). Buddhism's four brahmavihara (lit.'Divine States') can be regarded as virtues in the European sense.[1]

Etymology

The ancient Romans used the Latin word

borrowed into English in the 13th century".[2]

History

Ancient Egypt

Maat, to ancient Egyptians, personified the virtue of truth and justice. Her feather represents truth.[3]

chaos, lies, and injustice.[4]

Greco-Roman antiquity

Platonic virtue

The four classic cardinal virtues are:[5]

This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by Plato who also added piety (ὁσιότης, hosiotēs) and replaced prudence with wisdom.[7] Some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal.[8]

It is unclear whether Plato subscribed to a unified view of virtues.[9] In Protagoras and Meno he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom.

Aristotelian virtue

In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait.[10] The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a golden mean sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. However, the virtuous action is not simply the "mean" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the Nicomachean Ethics: "at the right times, and on the right occasions, and towards the right persons, and with the right object, and in the right fashion, is the mean course and the best course, and these are characteristics of virtue."[10] For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include courage between cowardice and foolhardiness and confidence between self-deprecation and conceit. In Aristotle's sense, a virtue is an excellence at being human.

Intellectual virtues

Aristotle also identifies the "intellectual virtues" of knowledge, art, practical judgement, intuition, and wisdom.

Roman Virtues

The term virtue itself is derived from the Latin "

paterfamilias), and those expected of an upstanding Roman citizen
.

Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a

better source needed
] both public and private, were:

Latin English Description
Abundantia Abundance or Prosperity The ideal of there being enough food and prosperity for all segments of society, personified by Abundantia. A public virtue.
Auctoritas Spiritual Authority The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order.
Comitas Humour Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.
Constantia Perseverance or Courage Military stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship.
Clementia Mercy Mildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions, personified by Clementia.
Dignitas Dignity A sense of self-worth, personal self-respect, and self-esteem.
Disciplina Discipline Considered essential to military excellence; also connotes adherence to the legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship, personified by Disciplina.
Fides Good Faith Mutual trust and reciprocal dealings in both government and commerce (public affairs), a breach meant legal and religious consequences, personified by Fides.
Firmitas Tenacity Strength of mind, and the ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without wavering.
Frugalitas Frugality Economy and simplicity in lifestyle.
Gravitas Gravity A sense of the importance of the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest.
Honestas Respectibility The image and honor that one presents as a respectable member of society.
Humanitas Humanity Refinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured.
Industria Industriousness or Diligence Hard work.
Innocencia Selflessness Giving without anticipating recognition or personal gain. Central to this concept was an unwavering commitment to incorruptibility, avoiding the misuse of public office for personal benefit, as that was considered a grave affront to Roman values, detrimental to both individual and communal well-being.
Laetitia Joy or Gladness The celebration of thanksgiving, often of the resolution of crisis, a public virtue.
Nobilitas
Nobility Man of fine appearance, deserving of honor, highly esteemed social rank, and, or, nobility of birth, a public virtue.
Justitia Justice Sense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis.
Pietas Dutifulness More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the patron and client relationship considered essential to an orderly society.
Prudentia Prudence Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion.
Salubritas Wholesomeness General health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus.
Severitas Sternness Self-control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas.
Veritas Truthfulness Honesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous.
Virtus
Manliness Valor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. Vir is Latin for "man".

Ancient India

Valluvar (Statue at SOAS, University of London).

While religious scriptures generally consider

Kural literature.[13] Valluvar considered justice as a facet or product of aṟam.[12] While many before his time opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice.[12] In the words of V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud."[12]

Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe

In the 8th century CE, upon the occasion of his coronation as

knightly virtues
:

  • Love God
  • Love your neighbor
  • Give alms to the poor
  • Entertain strangers
  • Visit the sick
  • Be merciful to prisoners
  • Do ill to no man, nor consent unto such
  • Forgive as ye hope to be forgiven
  • Redeem the captive
  • Help the oppressed
  • Defend the cause of the widow and orphan
  • Render righteous judgement
  • Do not consent to any wrong
  • Persevere not in wrath
  • Shun excess in eating and drinking
  • Be humble and kind
  • Serve your liege lord faithfully
  • Do not steal
  • Do not perjure yourself, nor let others do so
  • Envy, hatred, and violence separate men from the Kingdom of God
  • Defend the Church and promote her cause.
    better source needed
    ]

Religious traditions

Abrahamic religions

Bahá'í Faith

The

Baháʼí writings being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue.[16]

Christianity

Virtues fighting vices, stained glass window (14th century) in the Niederhaslach Church

In

charity and at other times a Greek word agape
is used to contrast the love of God and the love of humankind from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection.)

Christian scholars frequently add the four classic

seven heavenly virtues; for example, these seven are the ones described in the Catechism of the Catholic Church
, sections 1803–1829. In Christian tradition courage or fortitude is a gift of the Holy Spirit.

The Bible mentions additional virtues, such as in the "Fruit of the Holy Spirit," found in Galatians 5:22–23: "By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is no law against such things."

In 410 CE, Aurelius Prudentius Clemens listed seven "heavenly virtues" in his book Psychomachia (Battle of Souls) which is an allegorical story of conflict between vices and virtues. Among the virtues were fides (faith), pudicitia (chastity), paciencia (endurance), mens humilis (humility), spes (hope), sobrietas (sobriety), ratio (reason), operatio (devotion), pax (peace), concordia (harmony), and sapientia (wisdom).[17]

The medieval and renaissance periods saw a number of models of sin, listing the

seven capital virtues
opposed to each.

Vice Latin Virtue Latin
Pride Superbia Humility Humilitas
Envy Invidia Kindness Benevolentia
Gluttony Gula Temperance Temperantia
Lust Luxuria Chastity Castitas
Wrath
Ira Patience Patientia
Greed Avaritia
Charity
Caritas
Sloth Acedia Diligence Industria

Islam

In Islam, the Quran is believed to be the literal word of God, and the definitive description of virtue, and Muhammad is considered an ideal example of virtue in human form. The foundation of Islamic understanding of virtue was the understanding and interpretation of the Quran and the practices of Muhammad. Virtue is seen in the context of active submission to God performed by the community in unison.

Believers are to "

Quran 3:110). Mankind has been granted the faculty to discern
God's will and to abide by it.

Later

Muslim scholars expanded the religious ethics of the scriptures in detail.[18]

In the Hadith (Islamic traditions), it is reported by An-Nawwas bin Sam'an:

"The Prophet Muhammad said, 'Virtue is good manner, and sin is that which creates doubt and you do not like people to know it.'"

Wabisah bin Ma'bad reported:

"I went to Messenger of God and he asked me: 'Have you come to inquire about virtue?' I replied in the affirmative. Then he said: 'Ask your heart regarding it. Virtue is that which contents the soul and comforts the heart, and sin is that which causes doubts and perturbs the heart, even if people pronounce it lawful and give you verdicts on such matters again and again.'"

— Sunan al-Darimi, 2533

Virtue, as seen in opposition to sin, is termed thawāb (spiritual merit or reward) but there are other Islamic terms to describe virtue such as faḍl ("bounty"), taqwa ("piety"), and ṣalāḥ ("righteousness"). According to Muslim beliefs, God will forgive individual sins but the bad treatment of people and injustice toward others can only be pardoned by the victims and not by God.

Judaism

Loving God and obeying his laws, in particular the Ten Commandments, are central to Jewish conceptions of virtue. Wisdom is personified in the first eight chapters of the Book of Proverbs and is not only the source of virtue but is depicted as the first and best creation of God (Proverbs 8:12–31).

A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as such, is one of the most important figures in Jewish history. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; go and learn."[19]

Eastern religions

Buddhism

Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.[20]

  1. Right View – realizing the Four Noble Truths (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma).
  2. Right Mindfulness – mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati).
  3. Right Concentration – wholesome one-pointedness of mind (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi).

Buddhism's four brahmavihara ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are:

  1. Mettā/Maitrī: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy.[21]
  2. Karuṇā: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering.[21]
  3. Muditā: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings.[21]
  4. Upekkhā/
    better source needed
    ]

There are also the

Ten Stages
(Dasabhumika) Sutra, four more Paramitas are listed.

Daoism

"Virtue", translated from Chinese

Daoism. De (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade–Giles: te) originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English virtue, with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".[citation needed
]

In early periods of

proper behavior, performance of rituals"). The notion of ren – according to Simon Leys – means "humanity" and "goodness". Ren originally had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", but progressively took on shades of ethical meaning.[24] Some scholars consider the virtues identified in early Confucianism as non-theistic philosophy.[25]

The Daoist concept of De, compared to Confucianism, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. In the Analects, Confucius explains de as follows: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it."[26] In later periods, particularly from the Tang dynasty period, Confucianism absorbed and melded its own concepts of virtues with those from Daoism and Buddhism.[25]

There are symbols that represent virtue in Chinese Culture. Chinese classic paintings have many symbols representing virtue. Plum blossom represents resilience and perseverance. Orchid represents elegance, gentleness, and quietness. Bamboo represents loyalty, trust-worthiness, and humility. Chrysanthemum represents genuineness and simplicity.[citation needed]

Hinduism

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  • ^ "puNya". Spoken Sanskrit English Dictionary. 2010. Archived from the original on 2017-01-26.
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  • ^ Sri Ben Prabhu (June 3, 2017). "5 Fundamentals of Jainism Sri". medium.com. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
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  • ^ a b Nietzsche, Friedrich (1968) [1901]. The Will to Power. Translated by Kaufmann, W.; Hollingdale, R.J. New York: Vintage.
  • ^ a b Leiter, Brian (2020). "Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 ed.).
  • ^ a b c Nietzsche, Friedrich (1966) [1886]. Beyond Good and Evil. Translated by Kaufmann, W. New York: Vintage. p. 26.
  • ^ Franklin, Benjamin (1791). "Plan for Attaining Moral Perfection". The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin.
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  • Further reading

    External links