Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants
Voiced alveolar lateral approximant | |
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l | |
IPA Number | 155 |
Audio sample | |
help | |
Encoding | |
Entity (decimal) | l |
Unicode (hex) | U+006C |
X-SAMPA | l |
Braille |
Voiced postalveolar lateral approximant | |
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l̠ | |
Audio sample | |
help |
Voiced dental lateral approximant | |
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l̪ | |
Audio sample | |
help |
The voiced alveolar lateral approximant is a type of
l
.
As a
In a number of languages, including most varieties of English, the phoneme /l/ becomes velarized ("dark l") in certain contexts. By contrast, the non-velarized form is the "clear l" (also known as: "light l"), which occurs before and between vowels in certain English standards.[1] Some languages have only clear l.[2] Others may not have a clear l at all, or have them only before front vowels (especially [i]).
Features
Features of the voiced alveolar lateral approximant:
- Its manner of articulation is approximant, which means it is produced by narrowing the vocal tract at the place of articulation, but not enough to produce a turbulent airstream.
- There are four specific variants of [l]:
- .
- alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
- Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.
- The intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
Languages may have clear apical or laminal alveolars, laminal denti-alveolars (such as French), or true dentals, which are uncommon. Laminal denti-alveolars tend to occur in
Dental or denti-alveolar
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arabic | Gulf[4] | لـين/leen | [l̪eːn] | 'when' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Arabic phonology |
Chinese | Cantonese | 蘭/laan4 | [l̪an˨˩] | 'orchid' | |
Mandarin | 蘭/lán | [l̪an˨˥] | |||
Hungarian[5] | elem | [ˈɛl̪ɛm] | 'battery' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Hungarian phonology | |
Italian[6][7][8] | molto
|
[ˈmol̪ːt̪o] | 'much, a lot' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t, d, s, z, t͡s, d͡z/.[6][7][8] See Italian phonology | |
Macedonian[9] | лево/levo | [l̪e̞vo̞] | 'left' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Macedonian phonology | |
Malayalam
|
ലാവണം
|
[läːʋɐɳɐm] | 'Salty' | See Malayalam phonology
| |
Mapudungun[10] | ḻafkeṉ | [l̪ɐ̝fkën̪] | 'sea, lake' | Interdental.[10] | |
Norwegian | Urban East[11] | anlegg | [²ɑnːl̪ɛg] | 'plant (industrial)' | Allophone of /l/ after /n, t, d/.[11] See Norwegian phonology |
Spanish[12] | altar | [äl̪ˈt̪äɾ] | 'altar' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t/, /d/. See Spanish phonology | |
Swedish | Central Standard[13] | allt | [äl̪t̪] | 'everything' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Swedish phonology |
Tamil[14] | புலி/puli | [pul̪i] | 'tiger' | See Tamil phonology | |
Uzbek[15] | kelajak | [kel̪ædʒæk] | 'future' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Velarized between a non-front rounded vowel and a consonant or juncture phoneme.[15] | |
Vietnamese | Hanoi[16] | lửa | [l̪ɨə˧˩˧] | 'fire' | See Vietnamese phonology |
Alveolar
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arabic
|
Standard[17] | لا/lā | [laʔ] | 'no' | See Arabic phonology |
Armenian | Eastern[18] | լուսին/lusin | ⓘ | 'moon' | |
Assyrian
|
ܠܚܡܐ/läḳma | [lεxma] | 'bread' | ||
Catalan[19][20] | laca | [ˈlɑkɐ] | 'hair spray' | Apical 'front alveolar'.[19][20] May also be velarized.[21] See Catalan phonology | |
Chuvash | хула | [хu'la] | 'city' | ||
Dutch | Standard[22] | laten | [ˈl̻aːt̻ə] | 'to let' | Laminal. Some Standard Belgian speakers use the clear /l/ in all positions.[22] See Dutch phonology |
Some Eastern accents[23] | mal | [mɑl̻] | 'mold' | Laminal; realization of /l/ in all positions.[23] See Dutch phonology | |
Dhivehi | ލަވަ/lava | [laʋa] | 'song' | ||
English | Most accents[24] | let | [lɛt] | 'let' | Varies between apical and laminal, with the latter being predominant.[24] |
Irish, Geordie[25] | tell | [tʰɛl] | 'tell' | ||
Esperanto | luno | [ˈluno] | 'moon' | See Esperanto phonology | |
Filipino | luto
|
[ˈluto] | 'cook' | See Filipino phonology | |
Greek | λέξη/léksi | [ˈleksi] | 'word' | See Modern Greek phonology | |
Italian[6][26][27] | letto
|
[ˈlɛt̪ːo] | 'bed' | Apical.[7] See Italian phonology | |
Japanese | 六/roku | [lo̞kɯ̟ᵝ] | 'six' | Apical.[28] More commonly [ɾ]. See Japanese phonology | |
Kashubian[29] | [ example needed ]
|
||||
Khmer | ភ្លេង/phléng | [pʰleːŋ] | 'music' | See Khmer phonology
| |
Korean | 일/il | [il] | 'one' or 'work' | Realized as alveolar tap ɾ in the beginning of a syllable. See Korean phonology. | |
Kyrgyz[30] | көпөлөк /köpölök
|
[køpøˈløk] | 'butterfly' | Velarized in back vowel contexts. See Kyrgyz phonology | |
Laghu | laghu | [lagu] | 'Laghu language' | ||
Laghuu | Nậm Sài, Sa Pa Town
|
[la˧˨ ɣɯ˥] | 'Laghuu language' | ||
Mapudungun[10] | elun | [ëˈlʊn] | 'to give' | ||
Nepali | लामो
|
[lämo] | 'long' | See Nepali phonology | |
Odia[31] | ଭଲ | [bʰɔlɔ] | 'good' | ||
Persian | لاما /lāmā
|
[lɒmɒ] | 'llama' | See Persian phonology | |
Polish[32] | pole | ⓘ | 'field' | Contrasts with [ɫ̪] (/w/) for a small number of speakers. When it does, it might be palatalized to [lʲ]. See Polish phonology | |
Romanian[33] | alună | [äˈlun̪ə] | 'hazelnut' | Apical. See Romanian phonology | |
Scottish Gaelic[34] | maoil | [mɯːl] | 'headland' | Contrasts with /ɫ̪/ and /ʎ/. See Scottish Gaelic phonology
| |
Slovak[35] | mĺkvy
|
ⓘ | 'silent' | Syllabic form can be long or short. See Slovak phonology | |
Slovene[36] | letalo
|
[lɛˈt̪àːlɔ] | 'airplane' | See Slovene phonology | |
Spanish[37] | hablar | [äˈβ̞läɾ] | 'to speak' | See Spanish phonology | |
Welsh | diafol | [djavɔl] | 'devil' | See Welsh phonology | |
Ukrainian[38] | обличчя/oblychchya | [oˈblɪt͡ʃːɐ] | 'face' | Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology |
Postalveolar
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Igbo | Standard[39] | lì | [l̠ì] | 'bury' | |
Italian[7] | il cervo
|
[il̠ʲ ˈt͡ʃɛrvo] | 'the deer' | Palatalized laminal; allophone of /l/ before /ʃ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/.[7] See Italian phonology | |
Turkish[40][41] | lale | ⓘ | 'tulip' | Palatalized; contrasts with a velarized dental lateral [ɫ̟].[40][41]May be devoiced elsewhere. See Turkish phonology | |
Zapotec | Tilquiapan[42] | lan | [l̠an] | 'soot' |
Variable
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Faroese[43] | linur | [ˈliːnʊɹ] | 'soft' | Varies between dental and alveolar in initial position, whereas the postvocalic /l/ may be postalveolar, especially after back vowels.[43] See Faroese phonology | ||
French[44] | il | [il] | 'he' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and apical alveolar, with the latter being predominant.[44] See French phonology | ||
German | Standard[45] | Liebe | [ˈliːbə] | 'love' | Varies between denti-alveolar, laminal alveolar and apical alveolar.[45] | |
Norwegian | Urban East[46] | liv
|
[liːʋ] | 'life' | In process of changing from laminal denti-alveolar to apical alveolar, but the laminal denti-alveolar is still possible in some environments, and is obligatory after /n, t, d/.[46] See Norwegian phonology | |
Portuguese | Most Brazilian dialects,[47][48][49] some EP speakers[50] | lero-lero | [ˈlɛɾʊ ˈlɛɾʊ] | 'runaround'[51] | Clear, dental to sometimes alveolar.[52] Only occurs in syllable onset, with l-vocalization widely occurring in coda. Sometimes found before front vowels only in the European variety. See Portuguese phonology. | |
Lituânia | ⓘ | 'Lithuania' |
Velarized alveolar lateral approximant
Velarized L | |||
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lˠ | |||
lˤ | |||
ɫ | |||
IPA Number | 209 | ||
Audio sample | |||
help | |||
Encoding | |||
Entity (decimal) | lˠ | ||
Unicode (hex) | U+006C U+02E0 | ||
X-SAMPA | 5 or l_G or l_?\ | ||
|
The velarized alveolar approximant (a.k.a. dark l) is a type of
If the sound is dental or denti-alveolar, one could use a dental diacritic to indicate so: ⟨l̪ˠ⟩, ⟨l̪ˤ⟩, ⟨ɫ̪⟩.
Velarization and pharyngealization are generally associated with more dental articulations of
The term dark l is often synonymous with hard l, especially in
Features
Features of the dark l:
- Its manner of articulation is approximant, which means it is produced by narrowing the vocal tract at the place of articulation, but not enough to produce a turbulent airstream.
- There are four specific variants of [ɫ]:
- teeth.
- alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
- Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or, more rarely,[54] the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- It has a secondary articulation of velarization or pharyngealization, meaning that the back or root of the tongue approaches the soft palate (velum), or the back of the throat, respectively.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.
- The intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
Dental or denti-alveolar
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bashkir | ҡала/qala | ⓘ | 'city' | Velarized dental lateral; occurs in back vowel contexts. | |
Belarusian[55] | Беларусь/Biełaruś | [bʲɛɫ̪äˈrusʲ] | 'Belarus' | Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology | |
better source needed ]
|
стол/stol | [stoɫ̪] | 'chair' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Bulgarian phonology | |
Catalan[21][57] | alt | [ˈäɫ̪(t̪)] | 'tall' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t, d/.[57] See Catalan phonology | |
Classical Armenian[21][57] | խաղեր/xałer | [χɑɫɛɹ] | 'games' | /ʁ/ ġ in modern Armenian. | |
Icelandic[58] | sigldi | [s̺ɪɫ̪t̪ɪ] | 'sailed' | Laminal denti-alveolar; rare. See Icelandic phonology | |
Kashubian | Older southeastern speakers[29] | [ example needed ]
|
Laminal denti-alveolar; realized as [w] by other speakers.[29] | ||
Lithuanian[59] | labas
|
[ˈɫ̪äːbɐs̪] | 'hi' | Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with palatalized form. See Lithuanian phonology | |
Macedonian[60] | лук/luk | [ɫ̪uk] | 'garlic' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Present only before back vowels (/u, o, a/) and syllable-finally. See Macedonian phonology | |
Norwegian | Urban East[59][11] | tale | [ˈt̻ʰɑːɫ̪ə] | 'speech' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ after /ɔ, oː, ɑ, ɑː/, and sometimes also after /u, uː/.[11] However, according to Endresen (1990), this allophone is not velarized.[61] See Norwegian phonology |
Polish | Eastern dialects[32] | łapa | [ˈɫ̪äpä] | 'paw' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Corresponds to [w] in other varieties. See Polish phonology |
Russian[62] | малый/malyj | [ˈmɑ̟ɫ̪ɨ̞j] | 'small' | Pharyngealized laminal denti-alveolar. See Russian phonology | |
Scottish Gaelic[63] | Mallaig | [ˈmäʊɫ̪ækʲ] | 'Mallaig' | Contrasts with /l/ and /ʎ/. See Scottish Gaelic phonology
| |
Turkish[40][41] | lala | [ɫ̟ɑˈɫ̟ɑ] | 'servant' | Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with a palatalized postalveolar lateral [ |
Alveolar
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Afrikaans
|
Standard[64][65] | tafel | [ˈtɑːfəɫ] | 'table' | Velarized in all positions, especially non-prevocalically.[64][65] See Afrikaans phonology |
Albanian | Standard | llullë | [ˈɫuɫə] | 'smoking pipe' | |
Arabic
|
Standard[66] | الله/ʼAllah | [ʔaɫˈɫaːh] | 'God' | Also transcribed as ⟨lˤ⟩. Many accents and dialects lack the sound and instead pronounce [l]. See Arabic phonology |
Catalan[21] | Eastern dialects | cel·la | [ˈsɛɫːə] | 'cell' | Apical. Can be always dark in many dialects. See Catalan phonology |
Western dialects | al | [ɑɫ] | 'to the' | ||
Dutch | Standard[67] | mallen | [ˈmɑɫ̻ə] | 'molds' | Laminal; pharyngealized in northern accents, velarized or post-palatalised in southern accents. It is an allophone of /l/ before consonants and pauses, and also prevocalically when after the open back vowels /ɔ, ɑ/. Many northern speakers realize the final /l/ as a strongly pharyngealised vocoid [ɤˤ], whereas some Standard |
Some Netherlandic accents[23] | laten | [ˈɫ̻aːt̻ə] | 'to let' | Pharyngealized laminal; realization of /l/ in all positions.[23] See Dutch phonology | |
English[68] | Australian | feel | ⓘ | 'feel' | Most often apical; can be always dark in Australia and New Zealand. See Australian English phonology, New Zealand English phonology, and English phonology |
Canadian | |||||
Dublin
| |||||
General American
| |||||
New Zealand | |||||
Received Pronunciation | |||||
South African | |||||
Scottish | loch | [ɫɔx] | 'loch' | Can be always dark except in some borrowings from Scottish Gaelic | |
Greek | Northern dialects[69] | μπάλα/bálla | [ˈbaɫa] | 'ball' | Allophone of /l/ before /a o u/. See Modern Greek phonology |
Georgian | ჟოლო/zholo | [ˈʒo̞ɫo̞] | 'raspberry' | An allophone of /l/ before /o u/ and /a/. See Georgian phonology
| |
Kurdish | Sorani | gâlta | [gɑːɫˈtʲaː] | 'joke' | See Kurdish phonology |
Romanian | Bessarabian dialect[70] | cal | [kaɫ] | 'horse' | Corresponds to non-velarized l[in which environments?] in standard Romanian. See Romanian phonology |
Serbo-Croatian[71] | лак/lak | [ɫâ̠k] | 'easy' | Apical; may be syllabic; contrasts with /ʎ/. See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
Uzbek[15] | [ example needed ]
|
Apical; between a non-front rounded vowel and a consonant or juncture phoneme. Non-velarized denti-alveolar elsewhere.[15] |
Variable
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Portuguese | European[72] | mil | [miɫ̪] | 'thousand' | Dental and strongly velarized in all environments for most speakers, though less so before front vowels.[73][50] |
Older and conservative Brazilian[74][75][76][77] | álcool | [ˈäɫ̪ko̞ɫ̪] | 'alcohol, ethanol' | When [lˠ ~ lʶ ~ lˤ ~ lˀ],[78] most often dental. Coda is now vocalized to [u̯ ~ ʊ̯] in most of Brazil (as in EP in rural parts of Alto Minho and Madeira).[79] Stigmatized realizations such as [ɾ ~ ɽ ~ ɻ], the /ʁ/ range, [j] and even [∅] (zero) are some other coda allophones typical of Brazil.[80] See Portuguese phonology |
See also
Notes
- ISBN 978-0-7734-6208-3.
realization of /l/ is similar to that of RP: a 'clear' or non-velarized /l/ = [l] pre-vocalically and intervocalically; and a 'dark' or velarized /l/ = [ɫ] pre-consonantally and pre-pausally
- ISBN 978-0-521-72975-8.
the light /l/ used in all environments in [standard] German (e.g., Licht "light," viel "much, many") or in French (e.g., lit "bed", île "island")
- ^ Schirmer's pocket music dictionary
- ^ Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 14.
- ^ Siptár & Törkenczy (2000), pp. 75–76.
- ^ a b c Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117.
- ^ a b c d e Canepari (1992), p. 89.
- ^ a b Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 133.
- ^ Lunt (1952), p. 1.
- ^ a b c Sadowsky et al. (2013), pp. 88–89.
- ^ a b c d Kristoffersen (2000), p. 25.
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán (2003), p. 255-259.
- ^ Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
- ^ Keane (2004), p. 111.
- ^ a b c d Sjoberg (1963), p. 13.
- ^ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
- ^ Thelwall (1990), p. 38.
- ^ Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 20.
- ^ a b Wheeler (2005), pp. 10–11.
- ^ a b "Voiced Alveolar Lateral - Central". Els Sons del Català.
"Voiced Alveolar Lateral - Nord Occidental". Els Sons del Català. - ^ a b c d Recasens & Espinosa (2005), pp. 1, 20.
- ^ a b Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 197, 222.
- ^ a b c d Collins & Mees (2003), p. 197.
- ^ a b Wells (1982), p. 515.
- ^ Jones, Mark. "Sounds & Words Week 4 Michaelmas 2010 Lecture Notes" (PDF). Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- ^ Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 132.
- ^ Canepari (1992), pp. 88–89.
- ^ Labrune (2012), p. 92.
- ^ a b c Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
- ^ Kara (2003), p. 11.
- ^ Masica (1991), p. 107.
- ^ a b Rocławski (1976), p. 130.
- ^ Chițoran (2001), p. 10.
- ^ "The guide to reading Scottish Gaelic" (PDF).
- ^ Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 374.
- ^ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.
- ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 10.
- ^ Ikekeonwu (1999), p. 108.
- ^ a b c d Zimmer & Orgun (1999), pp. 154–155.
- ^ a b c d Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 8.
- ^ Merrill (2008), p. 108.
- ^ a b Árnason (2011), p. 115.
- ^ a b Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 192.
- ^ a b Mangold (2005), p. 49.
- ^ a b Kristoffersen (2000), pp. 24–25.
- ^ Depalatalization and consequential iotization in the speech of Fortaleza Archived 2011-11-01 at the Wayback Machine. Page 2. (in Portuguese)
- ^ Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
- ^ (in Italian) Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese) – The influence of foreign accents on Italian language acquisition Archived 2012-03-30 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ PMID 30856195.
- ^ Runaround generator
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 92.
- ^ For example Beal (2004).
- ^ a b Recasens & Espinosa (2005), p. 4.
- ^ Padluzhny (1989), pp. 50–51.
- ^ Bulgarian phonology
- ^ a b c Rafel (1999), p. 14.
- ^ Scholten (2000), p. 22.
- ^ a b Mathiassen (1996), p. 23.
- ^ Lunt (1952), pp. 11–12.
- ^ Endresen (1990:177), cited in Kristoffersen (2000:25)
- ^ Jones & Ward (1969), p. 168.
- ^ Ó Dochartaigh (1997).
- ^ a b Donaldson (1993), p. 17.
- ^ a b Lass (1987), p. 117.
- ^ Watson (2002), p. 16.
- ^ a b Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 58, 197, 222.
- ^ Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 73.
- ^ Northern Greek Dialects Portal for the Greek Language
- ^ Pop (1938), p. 30.
- ^ Gick et al. (2006), p. ?.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 93.
- ^ On /l/ velarization in European Portuguese Amália Andrade, 14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, San Francisco (1999)
- ^ (in Portuguese) The process of Norm change for the good pronunciation of the Portuguese language in chant and dramatics in Brazil during 1938, 1858 and 2007 Archived 2016-02-06 at the Wayback Machine Page 36.
- ^ TEYSSIER, Paul. "História da Língua Portuguesa", Lisboa: Livraria Sá da Costa, pp. 81-83.
- ^ Bisol (2005), p. 211.
- ^ "Um caso de português tonal no Brasil?" – Centro de Comunicação e Expressão – Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (in Portuguese). Page 49.
- ^ "Um caso de português tonal no Brasil?" – Centro de Comunicação e Expressão – Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (in Portuguese). Page 52.
- ^ MELO, Gladstone Chaves de. "A língua do Brasil". 4. Ed. Melhorada e aum., Rio de Janeiro: Padrão, 1981
- ^ Português do sul do Brasil – variação fonológica Archived 2019-12-16 at the Wayback Machine Leda Bisol and Gisela Collischonn. Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, 2009. Pages 153–156.
References
- Árnason, Kristján (2011), The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922931-4
- Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232,
- Beal, Joan (2004), "English dialects in the North of England: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 113–133, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
- Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005). "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 35 (2): 131–151. .
- Bisol, Leda (2005), "Introdução a estudos de fonologia do português brasileiro", Editora EDIPUCRS (4th ed.), Porto Alegre - Rio Grande do Sul, ISBN 85-7430-529-4
- Canepari, Luciano (1992), Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 88-08-24624-8
- Chițoran, Ioana (2001), The Phonology of Romanian: A Constraint-based Approach, Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-016766-2
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-10340-6
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, S2CID 249414876
- Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-929075-08-3
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