Voivode of Transylvania
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Great Officers of State in the Kingdom of Hungary |
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The Voivode of Transylvania (
They had wide-ranging administrative, military and judicial powers, but their jurisdiction never covered the whole province. The
Because of the gradual disintegration of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th century, the last voivodes of Transylvania, who came from the
Origins
The origin of the office is unclear.
The border position of Transylvania[10] led to the formation of the voivodeship, since the monarchs could not maintain direct control over this remote region.[11] Thus the voivodes were never autonomous, but remained provincial officials of the kings.[8] The voivodes were heads of Fehér County from 1201,[12] which may indicate that their position had its origin in the office of that county's ispán.[13]
Two royal charters issued in 1111 and 1113 mention one Mercurius "princeps Ultrasilvanus", but he may have been only an important landowner in Transylvania without holding any specific office.[10] Leustach Rátót was the first individual whose title voivode was documented. He held the office in the late 12th century, but his voivodeship was mentioned by a royal charter in 1230. The earliest extant document mentioning a voivode named Legforus was issued in 1199.[2][6][10] In addition to voivode, royal charters used the titles banus,[14] dux and herzog for the same office in the next decades, showing that the terminology remained uncertain until the second half of the 13th century.[6]
Functions
Jurisdiction
The territories under the jurisdiction of the voivodes are known as Voivodeship or Voivodate of Transylvania.[15][16] Voivodes were the chiefs of the ispáns of the Transylvanian counties.[13] Although the counties in Transylvania were first attested from the 1170s, earlier references to fortresses at their seats[17] and archaeological finds suggest that a system of counties existed in the 11th century.[18] For instance, Torda County was first mentioned in a charter of 1227, but a royal castle at Torda (Turda) had already been documented in 1097,[19] and three burials coin-dated to the reign of Stephen I of Hungary (1000 or 1001–1038) were unearthed in the same fortress.[20]
The ispáns of the Transylvanian counties of
The kings exempted some communities from the jurisdiction of the voivodes.
Following the
Honour of the voivodes
The office of voivode was one of the most important royal
During most of the 14th century, the voivodes held the castles at
The inhabitants of the Transylvanian counties were compelled to accommodate the voivodes and their officials.
The voivodes who preferred to stay in the royal court seldom resided in their province,[21] but were represented by their deputies.[36] The earliest record of a vicar of a voivode dates from 1221.[45] Later the title "vice-voivode", first documented in 1278, came into general use.[45][46] In addition to vice-voivodes and ispáns of the Transylvanian counties, the voivodes appointed the castellans of the royal fortresses.[21][47] They tended to choose from among the noblemen serving in their own retinue,[48] which ensured that their followers received a fair share of their revenues.[49][50] Accordingly, when a king dismissed a voivode, his men were also replaced with his successor's men.[49]
Judicial functions
Along with the
Although limiting his own jurisdiction, in 1342 voivode Thomas Szécsényi recognized the right of Transylvanian noblemen to judge legal cases of peasants who held parcels of land in their estates, "with the exception of three cases, such as robbery, highway robbery, and violent trespass".[53][54] This concession was confirmed in 1365 by King Louis I of Hungary.[54] Furthermore, the monarchs granted jus gladii (the right to the application of capital punishment) to more and more nobles in the course of the same century.[55]
According to customary law, noblemen could not be sued outside the province until the 15th century.[52] King Louis I even prohibited all prelates and noblemen who owned lands in Transylvania from bringing legal proceedings of lesser importance concerning these estates to the royal court.[56] Nevertheless, legal actions between Transylvanians and the inhabitants of other parts of the kingdom remained outside the jurisdiction of the voivodes.[41] Litigants could appeal to the royal court against the decision of the voivode from the 14th century, but the voivode often remained involved in the proceedings.[56] Legislation prescribed that appeals against decisions of the voivodes were to be addressed to the judge royal only from 1444.[55][56]
"Then, contempt of the general diet and the noble assembly of the Transylvanians held on the mandate of the king or of the lord voivode of Transylvania is fined by a hundred
florins; and that of a judicial seat, by fifty."
"General assemblies" convoked and presided over by the principal judges of the realm became important judicial institutions in the last decade of the 13th century.[58] General assemblies for the representatives of the Transylvanian counties were presided over by the voivode or the vice-voivode.[59] The first such assembly was held on June 8, 1288. They became important legal institutions from 1322.[60] Thereafter they were held on a regular basis, at least once a year at Keresztes (Cristiş) near Torda.[59][61]
With the authority of the monarch, the voivodes occasionally also invited the representatives of the Saxon and Székely communities to the counties' general meetings.
Military functions
The etymology of the title ("commander") suggests that voivodes had significant military duties.[64] They were the supreme leader of the troops recruited in the counties under their jurisdiction.[64] Although law obliged noblemen to fight in the king's army, Transylvanian nobles fought under the command of the voivode.[65] Furthermore, the voivodes had their own private retinue, formed primarily by armed noblemen.[64] Their right to raise an army under their own flag was confirmed by legislation in 1498.[66]
Military functions are attested, for instance, by Pousa, the voivode at the time of the Mongol invasion who fell in battle on March 31, 1241.[67][68] Voivode Lawrence of the Aba clan fought in the royal army in a war against Austria in 1246.[14] A Mongol army attacking the southern regions of Transylvania was defeated by voivode Ernye of the Ákos clan in 1260.[25] Roland Borsa fought against the invading Mongols in 1285.[69]
Voivode Nicholas Csáki failed to repel an Ottoman invasion of Transylvania in 1420.[70][71] In contrast, John Hunyadi, voivode between 1441 and 1446,[72] defeated a major Ottoman army at Gyulafehérvár in 1442.[73] His successor Stephen Báthory likewise won a resounding victory at Breadfield (Hungarian: Kenyérmező, Romanian: Câmpul Pâinii) on October 13, 1479.[74] By contrast, John Zápolya (Szapolyai), the last voivode before the battle of Mohács on August 29, 1526 did not arrive to the battlefield in time, summoned too late.[75] The battle ended with the Ottomans' annihilation of the royal army.[76] King Louis II of Hungary was also killed on the battlefield.[77]
Monarchs and their voivodes
Appointment and dismissal
The voivodes had power concentrated in their hands, impelling the monarchs to replace them frequently:
The era beginning with 1288 was characterized by longer periods in office.[13] Roland Borsa survived 10 years, while his successor, Ladislaus Kán, lasted 20 years.[13] This apparent stability was the consequence of the weakening of central government under the last two kings of the Árpád dynasty, Ladislaus IV (1272–1290) and Andrew III (1290–1301).[81] Royal power was only restored in the reign of Charles I (1308–1342) who one by one defeated the rebellious noblemen throughout his kingdom.[82]
In Transylvania, he was assisted by Thomas Szécsényi, the voivode between 1321 and 1342.
Cooperation and conflicts
The Mongols comprehensively plundered the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary, including Transylvania, during both their invasion in 1241 and their withdrawal the following year.[87] The consolidation of the province was the main task of Lawrence of the Aba clan, who the office for 10 years from 1242.[88] One of his successors, appointed by King Béla IV, Ernye of the Ákos clan, was dismissed in 1260 by the king's son, Stephen who had just taken over Transylvania with the title of duke.[14] The duke's action showed emerging tensions between father and son, rather than conflicts between the duke and Ernye.[14][89]
The first years of the reign of the minor Ladislaus IV were characterized by armed conflicts between parties of the leading noble families.
Borsa's successor
The next rebellion against royal power in Transylvania broke out in 1467.[100] Irritated by a new tax that King Matthias Corvinus had just introduced, representatives of the Three Nations concluded an alliance against the monarch and declared the three incumbent voivodes (the brothers Counts John and Sigismund Szentgyörgyi and Berthold Ellerbach) their leaders. The king put down the revolt in a week, but did not sentence the three voivodes, because their active role in the revolt was never proven.[101]
End of the office
The barons did not find a compromise candidate to succeed King Louis II who perished in the
King John I accepted Ottoman suzerainty in 1529,
Following John's death, Ottoman troops occupied the central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1541.[106] Sultan Suleiman I permitted the king's widow, Queen Isabella, to retain the territories east of the river Tisza (Tisa), including Transylvania, in the name of her infant son, John Sigismund.[106][107] George Martinuzzi, bishop of Várad, soon started to reorganize the government in the name of the dowager queen and her son. The Ottomans assisted the bishop by capturing his opponent, Stephen Majláth,[106] although the sultan had earlier confirmed the latter's position as voivode.[108] An assembly of the Three Nations elected George Martinuzzi as governor on behalf of the infant king in 1542.[106]
The office of voivode was vacant[1] until September 1549, when Ferdinand (who had not given up the idea of reuniting the territories of the entire kingdom) appointed Martinuzzi to this post.[109] However, Isabella and his son only left their realm in 1551.[110] Thereafter, Transylvania was again under the rule of voivodes appointed by the monarch, ending with István Dobó.[1] He administered the province until 1556, when Isabella and John Sigismund returned.[111]
John Sigismund ceased to style himself king of Hungary after the
List of voivodes
Twelfth century
Term | Incumbent | Monarch | Notes | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
c. 1111–c. 1113 | Mercurius | Coloman
|
"princeps Ultrasilvanus", but maybe only a distinguished nobleman | [2][10][117][118] |
1176–c. 1196 | Leustach of the Rátót clan | Béla III | first voivode attested by a royal charter (from 1230); leader of Hungarian reinforcements sent to the Byzantine Empire against the Seljuks in the Battle of Myriokephalon of 1176 | [2][6][118][119][120] |
1199–1200 | Legforus | Emeric
|
his voivode title is documented by the earliest royal charter (from 1199) | [2][6][118][119] |
1200 | Eth of the Geregye clan | Emeric
|
also ispán of Fehér County | [118][119][121] |
Thirteenth century
Fourteenth century
Term | Incumbent | Monarch | Notes | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
c. 1315 | Ladislaus (IV) of the Kán clan | self declared voivode, son of Ladislaus (III) Kán (1295–1314) | [98] | |
1315–1316 | Nicholas Meggyesi | Charles I | second rule; unable to take up his office; also ispán of Szolnok County (1315–1316) | [128][132][133] |
1318–1321 | Dózsa Debreceni | Charles I | also ispán of Szolnok County (1318–1321) | [40][128][133] |
1321–1342 | Thomas Szécsényi | Charles I | also ispán of Szolnok County (1321–1342), ispán of Arad County (1330–1342), and ispán of Csongrád County (1330) | [40][128][133] |
1342–1344 | Nicholas Sirokai | Louis I | also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1342–1344) | [128][133][134] |
1344–1350 | Stephen Lackfi | Louis I | also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1344–1350) | [128][133][134] |
1350–1351 | Thomas Gönyűi or Csór | Louis I | appointed by Counties (1350–1351) | [128][133][134] |
1351–1356 | Nicholas Kont of Orahovica
|
Louis I | also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1351–1356) | [128][133][134] |
1356–1359 | Andrew Lackfi | Louis I | brother of Stephen Lackfi (1344–1350); also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1356–1359) | [128][134][135] |
1359–1367 | Denis Lackfi | Louis I | son of Stephen Lackfi (1344–1350); also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1359–1367) | [128][134][135][136] |
1367–1368 | Nicholas Lackfi, Jr. | Louis I | son of Stephen Lackfi (1344–1350); also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1367–1368) | [128][134][135][136] |
1369–1372 | Emeric Lackfi | Louis I | son of Stephen Lackfi (1344–1350); also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1369–1372) | [128][134][135][136] |
1372–1376 | Stephen Lackfi of Csáktornya | Louis I | first rule; son of Stephen Lackfi (1344–1350); also ispán of Szolnok County (1372–1376) | [128][135][136][137] |
1376–1385 | Ladislaus Losonci, Sr. | Louis I, Mary | first rule; also ispán of Szolnok County (1376–1385) | [128][133][137][138] |
1385–1386 | Stephen Lackfi of Csáktornya | Charles II | second rule; also ispán of Szolnok County (1385–1386) | [133][137] |
1386–1392 | Ladislaus Losonci, Sr. | Sigismund, Mary | second rule; also ispán of Szolnok County (1386–1392) | [133][137][138] |
1392–1393 | Emeric Bebek | Sigismund, Mary | also ispán of Szolnok County (1392–1393) | [128][133][137] |
1393–1395 | Frank Szécsényi | Sigismund, Mary | also ispán of Arad, Csongrád, and Szolnok Counties (1393–1395) | [128][133][137] |
1395–1401 | Stibor of Stiboricz | Sigismund | first rule; also ispán of Arad and Szolnok Counties (1395–1401) | [128][133][137] |
Fifteenth century
Term | Incumbent | Monarch | Notes | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
1401 | Simon Szécsényi | Sigismund | also ispán of Szolnok County (1401) | [133][137] |
1402–1403 | Nicholas Csáki | Sigismund | first rule; also ispán of Krassó, Szolnok, Temes, and Zaránd Counties (1402–1403); a leader of the party supporting King Ladislaus of Naples 's claim to the Hungarian throne in 1403
|
[128][133][137][139] |
Nicholas Marcali | also ispán of Krassó, Szolnok, Temes, and Zaránd Counties (1402–1403); joined the party supporting King Ladislaus of Naples 's claim to the Hungarian throne in 1403
|
[128][133][137][140] | ||
1403–1409 | John Tamási | Sigismund | also ispáns of Szolnok County (1403–1409) | [128][133][141] |
James Lack of Szántó | ||||
1409–1414 | Stibor of Stiboricz | Sigismund | second rule; also ispán of Szolnok County (1409–1414), Nyitra and Trencsén, Lord of all Váh | [128][133][141] |
1415–1426 | Nicholas Csáki | Sigismund | second rule; also ispán of Békés, Bihar, and Szolnok Counties (1415–1426) | [128][133][141] |
1426–1437 | Ladislaus Csáki | Sigismund | second rule; together with Peter Cseh of Léva (1436–1437); also ispán of Dés (Dej);
|
[133][139][142][143] |
1436–1438 | Peter Cseh of Léva | Sigismund, Albert | together with Ladislaus Csáki (1426–1437) | [142][143][144] |
1438–1441 | Desiderius Losonci | Albert, Ladislaus V | left Ladislaus V's party and became Wladislas I's partisan in 1441 | [138][142][143][144] |
1440–1441 | Ladislaus Jakcs | Wladislas I | [142][144] | |
Michael Jakcs | ||||
1441–1458 | Nicholas Újlaki
|
Wladislas I, Ladislaus V | first rule; together with ban of Severin (1445–1446), and ban of Slavonia (1457)
|
[85][144] |
1441–1446 | John Hunyadi | Wladislas I | together with (1446) | [85][144] |
1446–1448 | Emeric Bebek | elected by the Diet of Hungary | together with Jász people (1446–1448); died fighting against the Ottomans in the second battle of Kosovo
|
[85][144][145] |
1449–1458 | John Rozgonyi | first rule; together with Nicholas Újlaki (1441–1458); also ispán of Sopron and Vas Counties (1449–1454), count of the Székelys (1457–1458)
|
[85][144] | |
1459–1461 | Ladislaus Kanizsai | Matthias | together with John and Sebastian Rozgonyi (1459–1460), and with his brother, Nicholas Kanizsai (1461) | [146] |
1459–1460 | John Rozgonyi | Matthias | together with Ladislaus Kanizsai (1459–1461), and with Sebastian Rozgonyi (1459–1460) | [147] |
1459–1460 | Sebastian Rozgonyi | Matthias | together with Ladislaus Kanizsai (1459–1461), and with John Rozgonyi (1459–1460) | [148] |
1461 | Nicholas Kanizsai | Matthias | together with his brother, Ladislaus Kanizsai (1459–1461) | [146] |
1462–1465 | Nicholas Újlaki
|
Matthias | second rule | [149] |
John Pongrác of Dengeleg | Matthias | first rule | [120] | |
1465–1467 | Bertold Ellerbach of Monyorókerék | Matthias | dismissed after rebellious Transylvanian nobles elected them to their leaders | [150] |
Count Sigismund Szentgyörgyi | brothers of Count Peter Szentgyörgyi (1498–1510); dismissed after rebellious Transylvanian nobles elected them to their leaders | [151] | ||
Count John Szentgyörgyi | [151] | |||
1468–1474 | Nicholas Csupor of Monoszló | Matthias | together with John Pongrác of Dengeleg (1468–1472) | [139] |
1468–1472 | John Pongrác of Dengeleg | Matthias | second rule; together with Nicholas Csupor of Monoszló (1468–1474) | [120] |
1472–1475 | Blaise Magyar | Matthias | leader of Hungarian reinforcements sent to prince of Moldavia in the Battle of Vaslui of 1475
|
[143][152] |
1475–1476 | John Pongrác of Dengeleg | Matthias | third rule | [143] |
1478–1479 | Peter Geréb of Vingárt | Matthias | [143] | |
1479–1493 | Stephen (V) Báthory of Ecsed | Wladislas II
|
[143] | |
1493–1498 | Bartholomew Drágfi of Béltek | Wladislas II
|
together with Ladislaus Losonci, Jr. (1493–1494); suppressed a rebellion of the Székelys | [143][153] |
1493–1495 | Ladislaus Losonci, Jr. | Wladislas II
|
together with Bartholomew Drágfi of Béltek (1493–1498) | [138][143] |
1498–1510 | Count Peter Szentgyörgyi | Wladislas II
|
brother of Counts Sigismund and John Szentgyörgyi (1465–1467) | [143][154] |
Sixteenth century
"Voivode of Transylvania, István Báthory! (...) Transylvania has long been under my protection, (...) and the country is my own (...). Therefore, out of my power, in accordance with your fealty to me I make Transylvania over to you."
Ahidnâme of 1571 to Stephen Báthory by Sultan Selim II[114]
Term | Incumbent | Monarch | Notes | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
1510–1526 | John Zápolya (Szapolyai) | Wladislas II, Louis II
|
became king of Hungary | [1][143][144] |
1527–1529 | Péter Perényi | John Zápolya | left John Zápolya's party and became a partisan of Ferdinand I | [1][143][155] |
1530–1534 | Stephen (VIII) Báthory of Somlyó | Ferdinand I | [1][143] | |
1530 | Bálint Török | [143] | ||
1530–1534 | Jerome Laski
|
John Zápolya | conspired against the king, who imprisoned him | [1][143][156] |
1533–1534 | Emeric Czibak | [143] | ||
1534–1540 | Stephen Majláth of Szunyogszeg | John Zápolya | together with Emeric Balassa of Gyarmat (1538–1540); planned to secede Transylvania from the Kingdom of Hungary, but was captured by the Ottomans | [1][106][157] |
1538–1540 | Emeric Balassa of Gyarmat | John Zápolya | together with Stephen Majláth of Szunyogszeg (1534–1540); fled when the Ottomans invaded Transylvania | [1][106][157] |
1551 | George Martinuzzi | Ferdinand I | also elected governor of Transylvania on behalf of the minor John Sigismund, the elected king (1543–1551) | [1][106] |
1552–1553 | Andrew Báthory of Ecsed | Ferdinand I | resigned | [1][143][158] |
1553–1556 | Stephen Dobó | Ferdinand I | last voivodes appointed by a king of Hungary | [1][143] |
Francis Kendi | ||||
1571–1576 | Stephen Báthory | elected by the king of Poland in 1576
|
[1][143][159] | |
1576–1581 | Christopher Báthory | Stephen Báthory | [1][115] | |
1581–1586 | Sigismund Báthory | Stephen Báthory | last voivode; his title of prince of Transylvania confirmed in 1595 by Emperor Rudolph | [160][161] |
See also
- Vice-voivode of Transylvania
- Ban of Croatia
- Ban of Slavonia
- Governor of Transylvania
- Palatine (Kingdom of Hungary)
- Transylvania in the Middle Ages
- List of rulers of Transylvania
- List of chancellors of Transylvania
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- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 260.
- ^ a b c Barta 1994, p. 263.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 294.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 35., 381.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lvi.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Engel 2001, p. 381.
- ^ a b c Markó 2000, p. 291.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Zsoldos 2011, p. 37.
- ^ a b Markó 2000, p. 283.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 90., 381.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Engel 2001, p. 382.
- ^ Markó 2000, p. 254.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 195.
- ^ a b c d Zsoldos 2011, pp. 38., 209.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lvii.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Zsoldos 2011, pp. 39., 209.
- ^ Markó 2000, p. 207.
- ^ a b c d e Zsoldos 2011, pp. 40., 209.
- ^ Engel 1996, pp. 11., 200.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Engel 2001, p. 383.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Engel 1996, pp. 11–12.
- ^ a b c d e Engel 1996, pp. 182., 383.
- ^ a b c d Markó 2000, p. 287.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Engel 1996, pp. 11., 13.
- ^ a b c d Markó 2000, p. 288.
- ^ a b c Markó 2000, p. 284.
- ^ Markó 2000, p. 289.
- ^ a b c Engel 1996, pp. 11., 14.
- ^ a b c d Engel 1996, p. 14.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lviii.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Engel 2001, p. 384.
- ^ Markó 2000, pp. 282–283.
- ^ a b Markó 2000, p. 286.
- ^ Markó 2000, p. 275.
- ^ Markó 2000, pp. 291–292.
- ^ Markó 2000, pp. 291., 294.
- ^ Markó 2000, p. 285.
- ^ a b Markó 2000, pp. 278., 293.
- ^ Markó 2000, pp. 288–289.
- ^ Markó 2000, pp. 283–285.
- ^ Markó 2000, p. 278.
- ^ Markó 2000, pp. 290–291.
- ^ Markó 2000, pp. 287–288.
- ^ a b Markó 2000, p. 282.
- ^ Markó 2000, p. 256.
- ^ Barta 1994, pp. 260, 263.
- ^ Barta 1994, pp. 263, 294–295.
- ^ Szegedi 2009, p. 101.
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Further reading
- Bărbulescu, Mihai; Dörner, Anton E.; Glodariu, Ioan; Pop, Grigor P.; Rotea, Mihai; Sălăgean, Tudor; Vasiliev, Valentin; Aldea, Bogdan; Proctor, Richard (2005). Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Nägler, Thomas (eds.). The History of Transylvania, Vol. I. (Until 1541) (PDF). ISBN 973-7784-00-6.
External links