Volksdeutsche
Volksdeutsche | |
---|---|
In
Ethnic Germans living outside Germany shed their identity as
Volksdeutsche were further divided into "racial" groups—minorities within a state minority—based on special cultural, social, and historic criteria elaborated by the Nazis.[4]
Origin of the term
According to the historian Doris Bergen, Adolf Hitler coined the definition of Volksdeutsche which appeared in a 1938 memorandum of the German Reich Chancellery. That document defined Volksdeutsche as "people whose language and culture had German origins but who did not hold German citizenship".[5] After 1945, the Nazi citizenship laws of 1935 (Reichsbürgergesetz ) - and the associated regulations that referred to the National Socialist concepts of blood and race in connection with the concept of volksdeutsch - were rescinded in Germany.
For
The Nazi goal of expansion assigned the Volksdeutsche a special role in German plans, to bring them back to German citizenship and to elevate them to power over the native populations in those areas. The Nazis detailed such goals in Generalplan Ost.[6] In some areas, such as in Poland, Nazi authorities compiled specific lists and registered people as ethnic Germans in the "Deutsche Volksliste".
Historical background
In the sixteenth century Vasili III invited small numbers of craftsmen, traders and professionals to settle in Russia from areas that would later become Germany so that Muscovy could exploit their skills. These settlers (many of whom intended to stay only temporarily) were generally confined to the German Quarter in Moscow (which also included Dutch, British and other western or northern European settlers whom the Russians came to indiscriminately refer to as "Germans"). They were only gradually allowed in other cities, so as to prevent the spread of alien ideas to the general population.[citation needed]
In his youth,
Also in other areas with an ethnic German minority people of other than German descent assimilated with the ethnic German culture and formed then a part of the minority. Examples are people of Baltic and Scandinavian descent, who assimilated into the minority of the Baltic Germans. Jews of Posen province, Galicia, Bukovina and Bohemia, with their Yiddish culture derived in part from their German heritage, often mingled into the ethnic German culture, thus forming part of the various ethnic German minorities. But anti-Semitic Nazis later rejected Jewish ethnic Germans and all Jewish German citizens as 'racially' German.
Ethnic Germans were also sent in organised colonisation attempts aiming at Germanisation of conquered Polish areas. Frederick the Great (reigned 1740–1786) settled around 300,000 colonists in the eastern provinces of Prussia, acquired in the First Partition of Poland of 1772, with the intention of replacing the Polish nobility. He treated the Poles with contempt and likened the "slovenly Polish trash" in newly occupied West Prussia to Iroquois, the historic Native American confederacy based in what is now the state of New York.[7][8]
Prussia encouraged a second round of
Treaty of Versailles
The
The Nazi era before World War II
During the Nazi years, the German Nazis used the term "Volksdeutsche", by which they meant racially German since they believed in a German 'race' or 'Volk', to refer to foreign nationals of some German ethnicity living in countries newly occupied by Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union. Prior to World War II, more than 10 million ethnic Germans lived in Central and Eastern Europe. They constituted an important minority far into Russia. Because of widespread assimilation some people whom the Nazis called Volksdeutsche could no longer speak German and in fact were culturally regionalized as Poles, Hungarians, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.
Pre-war relations with the Nazis
In 1931, prior to its rise to power, the Nazi party established the Auslandsorganisation der
According to the historian Valdis Lumans,
- "[one of Himmler's goals was] centralising control over the myriad of groups and individuals inside the Reich promoting the Volksdeutsche cause. Himmler did not initiate the process but rather discovered it in progress and directed it to its conclusion and to his advantage. His principal instrument in this effort was an office from outside the SS, a Nazi party organ, the Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle (VoMi), translated as the Ethnic German Liaison Office."[10]
Internal propaganda
Nazi propaganda used the existence of ethnic Germans who they called Volksdeutsche in foreign lands before and during the war, to help justify the aggression of Nazi Germany. The annexation of Poland was presented as necessary to protect the ethnic German minorities there.[11] Massacres of ethnic Germans, such as Bloody Sunday, or alleged atrocities, were used in such propaganda, and the film Heimkehr drew on such putative events as the rescue of Volksdeutsche by the arrival of German tanks.[12] Heimkehr's introduction explicitly states that hundreds of thousands of Poles of German ethnicity suffered as the characters in the film did.[13]
Sexual contact between what the Nazis viewed as different 'races' followed by remorse and guilt was also featured in
Collaboration with the Nazis
Before and during World War II, some ethnic Germans gathered around local Nazi organizations (sponsored financially by the German Foreign Office),[21][22] actively supported the Nazis in countries such as Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia. During the social and economic tensions of the Great Depression, some had begun to feel aggrieved with their minority status. They participated in espionage, sabotage and other Fifth column means in their countries of origin, trained and commanded by Abwehr.[23] In November 1938 Nazi Germany organized German paramilitary units made out German minority members in Polish Pomerania that were to engage in diversion, sabotage as well as political murder and ethnic cleansing upon German invasion of Poland.[24] Reich intelligence was actively recruiting ethnic Germans and the Nazi secret service "SicherheitsDienst" (SD) was forming them as early as October 1938 into armed unit that were to serve Nazi Germany.[25] Historian Matthias Fiedler typified ethnic German collaborationists as former "nobodies" whose major occupation was the expropriation of Jewish property.[26] Heinrich Himmler remarked that whatever objections ethnic Germans might have against serving in the Waffen-SS, they would be forced into conscription in any case.[27] According to head of recruitment for the Waffen SS, Gottlob Berger, no one in Germany or elsewhere cared for what happened with the ethnic Germans anyway, making forced recruitment easy to force upon ethnic German communities.[28]
Among the indigenous populations in the Nazi-occupied lands, Volksdeutsche became a term of ignominy.
During the early years of the Second World War (i.e., before the US entered the war), a small number of Americans of German origin returned to Germany; generally they were immigrants or children of immigrants, rather than descendants of migrations more distant in time. Some of these enlisted and fought in the German army.[citation needed]
During World War II
Ethnic Germans throughout Europe benefited financially during World War II from the Nazi policies of genocide and
'Volksdeutsche' in German-occupied western Poland
In September 1939 in German occupied Poland, an armed ethnic German militia called Selbstschutz (Self-Defence) was created. It organised the mass murder of Polish elites in Operation Tannenberg. At the beginning of 1940, the Selbstschutz organization was disbanded, and its members transferred to various units of the SS, Gestapo and the German police. Throughout the invasion of Poland, some ethnic German minority groups assisted Nazi Germany in the war effort: they committed sabotage, diverted regular forces and committed numerous atrocities against civilian population.[31][32]
After Germany occupied western Poland, it established a central registration bureau, called the German People's List (
The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle organised large-scale looting of property and redistributed goods to the Volksdeutsche. They were given apartments, workshops, farms, furniture, and clothing confiscated from Jews and Poles. In turn, hundreds of thousands of the Volksdeutsche joined the German forces, either willingly or under compulsion.
During
In occupied Poland, Volksdeutscher enjoyed privileges and were subject to conscription, or draft, into the
The special case of Polish Pomerania, where terror against civilians was particularly intense, and where, unlike in rest of occupied Poland, signing of the list was mandatory for many people, was recognised by the Polish Underground State and other anti-Nazi resistance movements, which tried to explain the situation to other Poles in underground publications.[35]
The Deutsche Volksliste categorised non-Jewish Poles of German ethnicity into one of four categories:[36][37]
- Category I: Persons of German descent committed to the Reich before 1939.
- Category II: Persons of German descent who had remained passive.
- Category III: Persons of German descent who had become partly "Polonised", e.g., through marrying a Polish partner or through working relationships (especially Silesians and Kashubians).
- Category IV: Persons of German ancestry who had become "Polonised" but were supportive of "Germanisation".
Volksdeutsche of statuses 1 and 2 in the Polish areas annexed by Germany numbered 1 million, and Nos. 3 and 4 numbered 1.7 million. In the General Government there were 120,000 Volksdeutsche. Volksdeutsche of Polish ethnic origins were treated by the Poles with special contempt.
Annexed area | Deutsche Volksliste, early 1944 | |||
Cat. I | Cat. II | Cat. III | Cat. IV | |
Warthegau
|
230,000 | 190,000 | 65,000 | 25,000 |
Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia Note: In Polish Pomerania, unlike in the rest of occupied Poland, signing of the list was mandatory for a good portion of the population.[35] |
115,000 | 95,000 | 725,000 | 2,000 |
East Upper Silesia | 130,000 | 210,000 | 875,000 | 55,000 |
South East Prussia | 9,000 | 22,000 | 13,000 | 1,000 |
Total | 484,000 | 517,000 | 1,678,000 | 83,000 |
Total 2.75 million on Volkslisten plus non-German population (Polish) of 6.015 million- Grand Total 8.765 million in annexed territories. | ||||
Source: ISBN 0-19-820873-1 , citing Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, p. 134
|
Because of actions by some Volksdeutsche and particularly the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany, after the end of the war, the Polish authorities tried many Volksdeutsche for high treason. In the postwar period, many other ethnic Germans were expelled to the west and forced to leave everything. In post-war Poland, the word Volksdeutsche is regarded as an insult, synonymous with "traitor".
In some cases, individuals consulted the Polish resistance first, before signing the Volksliste. There were Volksdeutsche who played important roles in intelligence activities of the Polish resistance, and were at times the primary source of information for the
Volksdeutsche in the territories annexed by the Soviet Union in 1939–1940
The secret protocols of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact created domestic problems for Hitler.[38] Supporting the Soviet invasion became one of the most ideologically difficult aspects of the countries' relationship.[39] The secret protocols caused Hitler to hurriedly evacuate ethnic German families, who had lived in the Baltic countries for centuries and now classified as Volksdeutsche, while officially condoning the invasions.[40][41] When the three Baltic countries, not knowing about the secret protocols, sent letters protesting the Soviet invasions to Berlin, Ribbentrop returned them.[42]
In August 1940, Soviet Foreign minister Molotov told the Germans that, with the government change, they could close down their Baltic consulates by 1 September.[42] The Soviet annexations in Romania caused further strain.[42] While Germany had given the Soviets Bessarabia in the secret protocols, it had not given them North Bukovina.[42] Germany wanted guarantees of the safety of property of ethnic Germans, security for the 125,000 Volksdeutsche in Bessarabia and North Bukovina, and reassurance that the train tracks carrying Romanian oil would be left alone.[41]
In October 1940, Germany and the Soviet Union negotiated about the Volksdeutsche in Soviet-occupied territories and their property.[44] Instead of permitting full indemnification, the Soviets put restrictions on the wealth that the Volksdeutsche could take with them and limited the totals that the Soviets would apply to the Reich's clearing accounts.[45] The parties discussed total compensation of between 200 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ and 350 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ for the Volksdeutsche, while the Soviets requested 50 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ for their property claims in German-occupied territories.[46] The two nations reached general agreement on German shipments of 10.5-cm flak cannons, gold, machinery and other items.[46]
On 10 January 1941, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the
Territory of origin | Year | Number of resettled Volksdeutsche |
---|---|---|
South Tyrol (see South Tyrol Option Agreement) | 1939–1940 | 83,000 |
Latvia and Estonia | 1939–1941 | 69,000 |
Lithuania | 1941 | 54,000 |
Galicia , Nerewdeutschland
|
1939–1940 | 128,000 |
General Government | 1940 | 33,000 |
North Bukovina and Bessarabia | 1940 | 137,000 |
Romania (South Bukovina and North Dobruja) | 1940 | 77,000 |
Yugoslavia | 1941–1942 | 36,000 |
USSR (pre-1939 borders)
|
1939–1944 | 250,000 |
Summary | 1939–1944 | 867,000 |
After the German invasion of the USSR
After the
Volksdeutsche in Hungary
A significant portion of Volksdeutsche in Hungary joined the
Volksdeutsche in Romania
After Romania acquired parts of Soviet Ukraine, the Germans there came under the authority of the
In the German colony of Shonfeld, Romas were burned in farms. During the winter of 1941/1942, German Selbstschutz units participated in the shooting, together with
Heinrich Himmler was sufficiently impressed by the Volksdeutsche communities and the work of the Selbstschutz to order that these methods be copied in Ukraine.[52]
'Volksdeutsche' in Serbia and Croatia
In the former Yugoslavia, the
"[a]fter the initial rush of Volksdeutsche to join, voluntary enlistments tapered off, and the new unit did not reach division size. Therefore, in August 1941, the SS discarded the voluntary approach, and after a favourable judgement from the SS court in Belgrade, imposed a mandatory military obligation on all Volksdeutsche in Serbia-Banat, the first of its kind for non-Reich Germans."[53]
In the former Yugoslavia a majority of ethnic Germans became members of the Schwäbisch-Deutscher Kulturbund (Swabian German Cultural Association), and reprisals on this group by Tito's partisans resulted in many immediate revenge killings in 1944 and incarceration of approximately 150,000 ethnic Germans in 1945.[54]
Expulsion and exodus from Central and Eastern Europe at the end of the war
Most ethnic Germans fled or were
An estimated 12 million people fled or were expelled from the Soviet Union and non-German-speaking Central Europe, many of them being 'Volksdeutsche'.[55][56][57][58] Most left the Soviet-occupied territories of Central and Eastern Europe; they comprised the largest migration of any European people in modern history.[56][59] The then three Allies had agreed to the expulsions during negotiations in the midst of war.[citation needed] The western powers hoped to avoid ethnic Germans being an issue again in Central and Eastern Europe.[60][61][62] The three Allies at the Conference of Potsdam considered the "transfer" of "German populations" from Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary an effort to be undertaken (see article 12 of the Potsdam Agreement), although they asked a halt because of the inflicted burden for the Allies to feed and house the destitute expellees and to share that burden among the Allies. France, which was not represented in Potsdam, rejected the decision of the Three of Potsdam and did not absorb expellees in its zone of occupation. The three Allies had to accept the reality on the ground, since expulsions of Volksdeutsche and Central and Eastern European nationals of German or alleged German ethnicity who never had enrolled as Volksdeutsche, were going on already.
Local authorities forced most of the remaining ethnic Germans to leave between 1945 and 1950. Remnants of the ethnic German community survive in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia. A significant ethnic German community has continued in Siebenbürgen (Transylvania) in Romania and in Oberschlesien (Upper Silesia) but most of it migrated to West Germany throughout the 1980s. There are also remnant German populations near Mukachevo in western Ukraine.[63]
Legacy
The term Volksdeutsche is generally avoided today due to its usage by the Nazis.
Instead, ethnic Germans of foreign citizenship living outside of Germany are called "Deutsche Minderheit" (meaning "German
See also
- Areas annexed by Nazi Germany
- German nationality law
- Goralenvolk
- Selbstschutz
- Imperial Germans, for a discussion of the different concepts and the shift of meaning between them.
- Fifth column
- Heimatvertriebene
- Umvolkung
- Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)
- Demographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans
- World War II evacuation and expulsion
- Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
- Nur für Deutsche
- Brandenburgers
Notes
- S2CID 159788983– via JSTOR.
- ^ As to older meanings of völkisch, see "Völkisch movement".
- ^ S2CID 152244621.
- ^ Valdis O. Lumans, Himmler's Auxiliaries: The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National Minorities of Europe, 1933-1945, 1993, p. 23.
- ^ S2CID 159788983.
- ^ Bergen, Doris. "The Nazi Concept of 'Volksdeutsche' and the Exacerbation of Anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe, 1939-45", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Oct. 1994), pp. 569-582
- ISBN 0-520-02775-2,established in the Bismarck era could in the course of two decades bring no more than 11,957 families to the eastern territories, Frederick settled a total of 57,475.... It increased the German character of the population in the monarchy's provinces to a very significant degree.... in West Prussia where he wished to drive out the Polish nobility and bring as many of their large estates as possible into German hands.
It has been estimated that during his reign 300,000 individuals settled in Prussia.... While the Prussian Settlement Commission
- ^ "In fact from Hitler to Hans we find frequent references to Poles and Jews as Indians. This, too, was a long standing trope. It can be traced back to Frederick the Great, who likened the 'slovenly Polish trash' in newly' reconquered West Prussia to Iroquois". David Blackbourn, James N. Retallack, Localism, Landscape, and the Ambiguities of Place: German-speaking Central Europe, 1860-1930, University of Toronto, 2007
- ^ Wielka historia Polski t. 4 Polska w czasach walk o niepodległość (1815–1864). Od niewoli do niepodległości (1864–1918)Marian Zagórniak, Józef Buszko 2003 page 186
- ^ Lumans Valdis, Himmler's Auxiliaries: The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National Minorities of Europe, 1933-1945, Chapel Hill, NC and London: University of North Carolina Press,
- ISBN 0-9627613-1-1
- ISBN 0-399-11845-4
- ISBN 0-399-11845-4
- ISBN 0-399-11845-4
- ISBN 0-02-570230-0
- ISBN 0-02-570230-0
- ISBN 0-02-570230-0
- ISBN 0-03-076435-1
- ISBN 0-9627613-1-1
- ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p20 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
- ^ H. Kennard to Viscount Halifax (August 24, 1939). "The British War Bluebook". 2008 Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
- ISBN 978-8323388685.
- ^ Józef Kossecki (1997). "II Oddział Sztabu Głównego II RP (Chapter 3.3)" (PDF). Totalna Wojna Informacyjna XX Wieku a II RP. Kielce: Wydział Zarządzania i Administracji Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej im. J. Kochanowskiego w Kielcach: 102 – via direct download, 808 KB.
- ^ Konrad Ciechanowski (1988). Stutthof: hitlerowski obóz koncentracyjny. Wydawnictwo Interpress. p. 13.
- ^ Himmler's Auxiliaries: The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National Minorities of Europe, 1933-1945 Valdis O. Lumans page 98
- ^ Wittmann, A.M., "Mutiny in the Balkans: Croat Volksdeutsche, the Waffen-SS and Motherhood", East European Quarterly XXXVI No. 3 (2002), p. 257
- ^ Wittmann, A.M., "Mutiny in the Balkans: Croat Volksdeutsche, the Waffen-SS and Motherhood", East European Quarterly XXXVI No. 3 (2002), p. 258
- ^ Wittmann, A.M., "Mutiny in the Balkans: Croat Volksdeutsche, the Waffen-SS and Motherhood", East European Quarterly XXXVI No. 3 (2002), p. 259
- ^ Mathias Schulze, German Diasporic Experiences: Identity, Migration, and Loss, page 126
- ISBN 1845453026.
- ISBN 978-83-7629-063-8
- ^ Browning, Christopher R. The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942, 2007 p. 33
- ^ Historia Encyklopedia Szkolna, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i, Warszawa" Pedagogiczne, 1993, pp. 357, 358
- ^ Historia społeczno-polityczna Górnego Śląska i Śląska w latach 1918-1945 Maria Wanatowicz - 1994 Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, 1994, p. 180
- ^ a b c d Chrzanowski, B., Gasiorowski, A., and Steyer, K. Polska Podziemna na Pomorzu w Latach 1939-1945 (Underground Polish State in Pomerania in the years 1939-1945), Oskar, Gdansk, 2005, pgs. 59-60
- ISBN 3-89325-300-9 [1]
- ISBN 3-7643-2852-5 [2]
- ^ Philbin III 1994, p. 71
- ^ Philbin III 1994, p. 129]
- ^ Shirer 1990, p. 665
- ^ a b Ericson 1999, p. 134
- ^ a b c d Shirer 1990, p. 794
- ^ Among the resettled people were the parents of Germany's former CDU president Horst Köhler
- ^ Ericson 1999, p. 144
- ^ Ericson 1999, p. 138
- ^ a b Ericson 1999, p. 149
- ^ Ericson 1999, p. 150
- ^ ISBN 81-7488-491-2pages 134-137
- ^ Enzyklopädie Migration in Europa. Vom 17. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, Munich: K.J.Bade, 2007, ss. 1082–1083.
- ^ ISBN 9780719030420.
- ^ "Die Vertreibung – Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Ungarn".
- ISBN 978-1845457198, p. 389
- ^ Valdis O. Lumans, Himmler's Auxiliaries: The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National minorities of Europe, 1939-1945 (University of North Carolina Press, 1993), p. 235.
- ^ Wittmann, Anna M., "Mutiny in the Balkans: Croat Volksdeutsche, the Waffen-SS and Motherhood." Archived 2017-04-04 at the Wayback Machine East European Quarterly XXXVI No. 3 (2002), pp. 256-257.
- ISBN 963-9241-70-9
- ^ ISBN 0-7391-1607-X: "… largest movement of any European people in modern history" [3]
- ISBN 1-57181-092-7
- ^ The Expulsion of 'German' Communities from Central and Eastern Europe at the end of the Second World War Archived 2009-10-01 at the Wayback Machine, Steffen Prauser and Arfon Rees, European University Institute, Florence. HEC No. 2004/1. p. 4
- ISBN 0-19-873074-8
- ^ Text of Churchill Speech in Commons on Soviet=Polish Frontier, The United Press, December 15, 1944
- ISBN 3-486-56731-4
- ISBN 3-8258-9340-5
- ^ Grushenko, Kateryna (14 October 2010). "World in Ukraine: German heritage alive in Transcarpathian Ukraine". Kyiv Post.
References
- Ericson, Edward E. (1999), Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-275-96337-3
- Philbin III, Tobias R. (1994), The Lure of Neptune: German-Soviet Naval Collaboration and Ambitions, 1919–1941, University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 0-87249-992-8
- Roberts, Geoffrey (2006), Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-11204-1
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- Douglas, R.M. Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War, Yale University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-300-16660-6.
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- Naimark, Norman. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 2001.
- Oltmer, Jochen. "Heimkehr"? "Volksdeutsche fremder Staatsangehörigkeit" aus Ost-, Ostmittel- und Südosteuropa im deutschen Kaiserreich und in der Weimarer Republik, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: June 16, 2011.
- Prauser, Steffen and Rees, Arfon. The Expulsion of the "German" communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the 2nd World War, Florence: European University Institute, 2004.
- Stiller, Alexa (2018). "'Ethnic Germans'". A Companion to Nazi Germany. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 533–549. ISBN 978-1-118-93689-4.
- Thum, Gregor. "Volksdeutsch Revisionism: East Central Europe’s Ethnic Germans and the Order of Paris." In Conservatives and Right Radicals in Interwar Europe, edited by Marco Bresciani. London and New York: Routledge, 2021, pp. 44–67.