Vulva

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For other uses, see Vulva (disambiguation).

Vulva
Superficial inguinal lymph nodes
Identifiers
Latinvulva, pudendum muliebre, pudendum femininum
MeSHD014844
TA98A09.2.01.001
TA23547
FMA20462
Anatomical terminology]

In

Pelvic floor muscles
support the structures of the vulva. Other muscles of the urogenital triangle also give support.

Blood supply to the vulva comes from the three pudendal arteries. The internal pudendal veins give drainage. Afferent lymph vessels carry lymph away from the vulva to the inguinal lymph nodes. The nerves that supply the vulva are the pudendal nerve, perineal nerve, ilioinguinal nerve and their branches. Blood and nerve supply to the vulva contribute to the stages of sexual arousal that are helpful in the reproduction process.

Following the development of the vulva, changes take place at birth,

Vulvovaginal health measures can prevent many of these. Other disorders include a number of infections and cancers. There are several vulval restorative surgeries known as genitoplasties, and some of these are also used as cosmetic surgery procedures
.

Different cultures have held different views of the vulva. Some ancient religions and societies have worshipped the vulva and revered the female as a goddess. Major traditions in Hinduism continue this. In Western societies, there has been a largely negative attitude typified by the medical terminology of pudenda membra, meaning parts to be ashamed of. There has been an artistic reaction to this in various attempts to bring about a more positive and natural outlook, such as work from British, American, and Japanese artists. While the vagina is a separate part of the anatomy, it has often been used synonymously with vulva.[1]

Structure

Labeled image of a vulva, showing external and internal views
Labeled illustrations of the gross anatomy of the vulva

In humans, the vulva is made up of the following:

Mons pubis

The mons pubis is the soft mound of fatty tissue at the front of the vulva, in the pubic region covering the pubic bone.[2] Mons pubis is Latin for "pubic mound" and is present in both sexes to act as a cushion during sexual intercourse, and is more pronounced in the female.[3] The variant term mons veneris ('mound of Venus') is used specifically for females.[4][3]

Labia

The

pudendal cleft and the anus.[6][7] The labia minora are often pink or brownish black, relevant to the person's skin color.[8]

The grooves between the labia majora and labia minora are called the interlabial sulci, or interlabial folds.[9] The labia minora (smaller lips) are the two inner soft folds within the labia majora. They have more color than the labia majora[2] and contain numerous sebaceous glands.[10] They meet posteriorly at the frenulum of the labia minora, a fold of restrictive tissue. The labia minora meet again at the front to form the clitoral hood.[11]

Clitoris

Located at the anterior junction of the inner labia is the

shaft engorged. The clitoral glans contains many nerve endings, which makes it highly sensitive.[11] The only known function of the clitoris is to focus on sexual feelings.[11] The clitoral hood is a protective fold of skin, which varies in shape and size, and it may partially or completely cover the shaft and glans.[13] The hood may be partially or completely hidden within the pudendal cleft.[14]

Vestibule

The area between the labia minora where the

vaginal opening and the urinary meatus are located is called the vulval vestibule. The meatus is below the clitoris and just in front of the vaginal opening, which is near to the perineum. The term introitus is more technically correct than "opening", since the vagina is usually collapsed, with the opening closed. The introitus is sometimes partly covered by a membrane called the hymen. The hymen will usually rupture during the first episode of vigorous sex, and the blood produced by this rupture has been seen to signify virginity. However, the hymen may also rupture spontaneously during exercise or be stretched by normal activities such as the use of tampons and menstrual cups, or be so minor as to be unnoticeable, or be absent.[11] In some rare cases, the hymen may completely cover the vaginal opening, requiring a surgical procedure called a hymenotomy.[15] On either side of the back part of the vaginal opening are the two greater vestibular glands known as Bartholin's glands. These glands secrete a mucous vaginal lubricant.[16] The lesser vestibular glands, known as Skene's glands
, are found on the anterior wall of the vagina.

Muscles

ischiocavernosus muscles.[18] The bulbospongiosus muscle decreases the vaginal opening.[6] They play a role in the vaginal contractions of orgasm by causing the vestibular bulbs to contract.[19]

Blood, lymph and nerve supply

The tissues of the vulva are highly

internal pudendal veins.[21]
The organs and tissues of the vulva are drained by a chain of
superficial inguinal lymph nodes located along the blood vessels.[22]

The

dorsal nerve, which gives sensation to the clitoris.[23] The clitoral glans is seen to be populated by a large number of small nerves, a number that decreases as the tissue changes towards the urethra.[24] The density of nerves at the glans indicates that it is the center of heightened sensation.[24] Cavernous nerves from the uterovaginal plexus supply the erectile tissue of the clitoris.[25] These are joined underneath the pubic arch by the dorsal nerve of the clitoris.[26]
The pudendal nerve enters the pelvis through the
deep branch of the perineal nerve supplies the muscles of the perineum and a branch of this supplies the bulb of the vestibule.[28][29]

Variations

The length of the labia minora varies significantly between women: while the labia majora completely enclose the labia minora in some women (top row), in other women, they protrude and are clearly visible in an upright standing position (bottom row). Colloquially, these variations of the labia are also referred to as "innies" and "outies".[30][31][32]

There is a great deal of variation in the appearance of the vulva.[11] Much of this variation lies in the significant differences in the size, shape, and color of the labia minora. Though called the smaller lips, they can often be of considerable size and may protrude outside the vulva or labia majora.[11][7] This variation has also been evidenced in a large display of 400 vulval casts called the Great Wall of Vagina created by Jamie McCartney to fill the lack of information of what a normal vulva looks like. The casts taken from a large and varied group of women showed clearly that there is much variation.[33][11]

Researchers from the Elizabeth Garret Anderson Hospital, London, measured multiple genital dimensions of 50 women between the ages of 18 and 50, with a mean age of 35.6:[34]

Measurements Mean [standard deviation]
Clitoral length (mm) 5.0 – 35.0 19.1 [8.7]
Clitoral glans width (mm) 3.0 – 10.0 5.5 [1.7]
Clitoris to urethra (mm) 16.0 – 45.0 28.5 [7.1]
Labia majora length (cm) 7.0 – 12.0 9.3 [1.3]
Labia minora length (mm) 20 – 100 60.6 [17.2]
Labia minora width (mm) 7.0 – 50.0 21.8 [9.4]
Perineum length (mm) 15.0 – 55.0 31.3 [8.5]
Vaginal length (cm) 6.5 – 12.5 9.6 [1.5]
Tanner stage (n) IV 4.0 (8%)
V 46 (92%)
Color of the genital area compared to the surrounding skin (n) Same color 9 (18%)
Darker color 41 (82%)
Rugosity of the labia (n) Smooth (unwrinkled) 14 (28%)
Moderately wrinkled 34 (68%)
Markedly wrinkled 2 (4%)

Development

Prenatal development

Main article: Development of the reproductive system
Genital tubercle of female at fourteen weeks
Development of genitals showing homologues from indifferent to both sexes - female on right

In week three of

the development of the embryo, mesenchyme cells from the primitive streak migrate around the cloacal membrane.[35] Early in the fifth week, the cells form two swellings called the cloacal folds.[36] The cloacal folds meet in front of the cloacal membrane and form a raised area known as the genital tubercle.[36][35] The urorectal septum fuses with the cloacal membrane to form the perineum. This division creates two areas one surrounded by the urethral folds and the other by the anal folds.[36][35] These areas become the urogenital triangle and the anal triangle.[37] The area between the vulva and the anus is known as the clinical perineum.[37]

At the same time, a pair of swellings on either side of the urethral folds known as the genital swellings develop into the

labioscrotal swellings.[36][35] Sexual differentiation takes place, and at the end of week six in the female, hormones stimulate further development and the genital tubercle bends and forms the clitoris.[36][35]
The urethral folds form the labia minora and the labioscrotal swellings form the labia majora.

The uterovaginal canal or genital canal, forms in the third month of the development of the urogenital system. The lower part of the canal is blocked off by a plate of tissue, the vaginal plate. This tissue develops and lengthens during the third to fifth months and the lower part of the vaginal canal is formed by a process of desquamation or cell shedding. The end of the vaginal canal is blocked off by an endodermal membrane, which separates the opening from the vestibule. In the fifth month, the membrane degenerates but leaves a remnant called the hymen.[36]

Childhood

The newborn's vulva may be swollen or enlarged as a result of having been exposed, via the placenta, to her mother's increased levels of hormones.[38] The labia majora are closed.[39] These changes disappear over the first few months.[38] During childhood before puberty, the lack of estrogen can cause the labia to become sticky and to ultimately join firmly together. This condition is known as labial fusion and is rarely found after puberty when estrogen production has increased.[40]

Puberty

Puberty is the onset of the ability to reproduce, and takes place over two to three years, producing a number of changes.[41][42] The structures of the vulva become proportionately larger and may become more pronounced.[43] Pubarche, the first appearance of pubic hair develops, firstly on the labia majora, and later spreads to the mons pubis, and sometimes to the inner thighs and perineum. Pubic hair is much coarser than other body hair, and is considered a secondary sex characteristic.[44] Pubarche can occur independently of puberty. Premature pubarche may sometimes indicate a later metabolic-endocrine disorder seen at adolescence. The disorder sometimes known as a polyendocrine disorder is marked by elevated levels of androgen, insulin, and lipids, and may originate in the fetus. Instead of being seen as a normal variant it is proposed that premature pubarche may be seen as a marker for these later endocrine disorders.[45]

sweat into the pubic hair follicles. This is broken down by bacteria on the skin and produces an odor,[46] which some consider to act as an attractant sex pheromone.[47] The labia minora may grow more prominent and undergo changes in color.[48] At puberty, the first monthly period known as menarche marks the onset of menstruation.[49]
In prepubertal girls, the skin of the vulva is thin and delicate, and its neutral pH makes it prone to irritation.[50] The production of the female sex hormone estradiol (an estrogen) at puberty, causes the perineal skin to thicken by keratinising, and this reduces the risk of infection.[51] Estrogen also causes the laying down of fat in the development of the secondary sex characteristics. This contributes to the maturation of the vulva with increases in the size of the mons pubis, and the labia majora and the enlargement of the labia minora.[43]

Pregnancy

In pregnancy, the vulva and vagina take on a bluish coloring due to venous congestion. This appears between the eighth and twelfth week and continues to darken as the pregnancy continues.[37] Estrogen is produced in large quantities during pregnancy and this causes the vulva to become enlarged. The vaginal opening and the vagina are also enlarged.[52] After childbirth, a vaginal discharge known as lochia is produced and continues for about ten days.[52]

Menopause

During menopause, hormone levels decrease, which causes changes in the vulva known as vulvovaginal atrophy.[53] The decreased estrogen affects the mons, the labia, and the vaginal opening and can cause pale, itchy, and sore skin.[53] Other visible changes are a thinning of the pubic hair, a loss of fat from the labia majora, a thinning of the labia minora, and a narrowing of the vaginal opening. This condition has been renamed by some bodies as the genitourinary syndrome of menopause as a more comprehensive term.[53]

Function and physiology

Main article: Female reproductive system

The vulva has a major role to play in the reproductive system. It provides entry to, and protection for the uterus, and the right conditions in terms of warmth and moisture that aids in its sexual and reproductive functions. The external organs of the vulva are richly innervated and provide pleasure when properly stimulated. The mons pubis provides cushioning against the pubic bone during intercourse.[11]

A number of different secretions are associated with the vulva, including

Aliphatic acids known as copulins are also secreted in the vagina.[47] These are believed to act as pheromones. Their fatty acid composition, and consequently their odor changes in relation to the stages of the menstrual cycle.[47]

Sexual stimulation

Main articles: Human sexual response cycle and Sexual arousal
Further information: Orgasm § Females
Non-aroused vulva on the left and a sexually aroused vulva on the right with enlarged and shiny labia minora from vaginal lubrication and vasocongestion

The clitoris and the labia minora are both erogenous areas of the vulva. Local stimulation can involve the clitoris, vagina and other perineal regions. The clitoris (especially the glans) is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure.[55] Sexual stimulation of the clitoris (by a number of means) can result in widespread sexual arousal and, if maintained, can result in orgasm. Stimulation to vulvar orgasm is optimally achieved by a massaging sensation,[43] such as oral sex (cunnilingus) and fingering.

Sexual arousal results in a number of physical changes in the vulva. During arousal,

bladder to be expelled through the urethra. The pooled blood begins to dissipate, although at a much slower rate if an orgasm has not occurred. The vagina and its opening return to their normal relaxed state, and the rest of the vulva returns to its normal size, position and color.[57][11]

Distance between vagina and clitoral glans

The distance between the

vaginal opening is called the clitoral-urinary meatus distance or CUMD. In the 1920s, Marie Bonaparte conducted surveys among women to find out whether they get an orgasm during coitus. The causes of lack of sexual arousal were known to be aversion or psychological inhibitions. Among the test subjects, there were women who, with a man they loved and desired, "felt the greatest pleasure at certain tender touches", but were nevertheless not sufficiently aroused during coitus. Bonaparte examined the distance between the clitoris and the vagina
in 200 women. In 69% of the women, the CUMD was 1.25 to 2.25 cm, most of whom experienced the sexual act as satisfying. In 10% of the women, the CUMD was 2.5 cm, 21% measured 2.75 to 3.5 cm. All the women with a large gap stated that they did not experience satisfying pleasure from penile penetration, although some were very sensitive to "precise stroking by the man". Bonaparte concluded from this an anatomical causal connection between a large CUMD and "vaginal frigidity" explaining why only women with the clitoral glans close to the vagina (so that it is continuously touched by the penis) were able to experience "the highest sexual pleasure" during coitus.[58][59]

  • Glans clitoridis with small distance to the opening
    Glans clitoridis with small distance to the opening
  • Contact of the clitoral glans with the penis with small CUMD
    Contact of the clitoral glans with the penis with small CUMD
  • Glans clitoridis with medium distance to the opening
    Glans clitoridis with medium distance to the opening
  • Lack of contact of the clitoral glans with the penis
    Lack of contact of the clitoral glans with the penis
  • Classification of the 200 women into CUMD categories
    Classification of the 200 women into CUMD categories
  • Selection of women studied and interviewed
    Selection of women studied and interviewed

A study by Carney Landis and colleagues in 1940 includes statements to this effect: "On the physical side orgasm capacity is related to clitoris-meatus distance". (Landis et al. 1940).[60][61]

In 2011, Kim Wallen[62] and Elisabeth Lloyd reviewed Bonaparte's research and confirmed an inverse correlation between CUMD and orgasm through intercourse.[63][64][65][66] In methods taught since the 1970s by Betty Dodson, the sexual arousal of the woman during vaginal intercourse is to be ensured by the woman independently stimulating her clitoris continuously with her hands or possibly with a vibrator.[67][68] According to Kim Wallen, the CUMD says nothing about a happy sex life, rather that a large gap gives couples an opportunity "to be a bit more inventive in how they have sex".[64]

Clinical significance

Main article: Vulvar disease

Irritation

Irritation and

cancers may cause irritation.[76][77]

Sexually transmitted infections

Main article: Sexually transmitted infection
Water warts of molluscum contagiosum
Pubic hair with crab lice

Vulvar organs and tissues can become affected by different

parasites such as lice and mites. Over thirty types of pathogen can be sexually transmitted, and many of these affect the genitals. Most STIs do not produce symptoms or symptoms may be mild and not be indicative of an STI.[78] The practice of safe sex can greatly reduce the risk of infection from many sexually transmitted pathogens.[79] The use of condoms (either male or female condoms) is one of the most effective methods of protection.[78]

Bacterial infections include: chancroid – characterised by genital ulcers known as chancres; granuloma inguinale showing as inflammatory granulomas often described as nodules; syphilis –the primary stage classically presents with a single chancre, a firm, painless, non-itchy ulcer, but there may be multiple sores;[80] and gonorrhea that very often presents no symptoms but can result in discharge.[81]

Viral infections include human papillomavirus infection (HPV) – this is the most common STI and has many types.[82] Genital HPV can cause genital warts. There have been links made between HPV and vulvar cancer, though HPV most often causes cervical cancer.[83] Genital herpes is mostly asymptomatic but can present with small blisters that break open into ulcers.[84] HIV/AIDS is mostly transmitted through sexual activity, and the vulva in some cases can be affected by sores.[85]
A highly contagious viral infection is molluscum contagiosum, which is transmissible on close contact and causes water warts.[86][87]

ectoparasite.[77] When the pubic hair is infested, the irritation produced can be intense.[77] Scabies, also known as the "seven year itch", is caused by another ectoparasite, the mite Sarcoptes scabiei, giving intense irritation.[77]

Cancer

Main article: Vulvar cancer

squamous cell carcinomas, melanomas, basal cell carcinomas, adenocarcinomas, sarcomas and invasive extramammary Paget's disease.[90] Squamous cell carcinomas represent the most common variant of vulvar cancers and account for approximately 75%.[90] These are usually found in the labia, particularly the labia majora.[91] The second most common vulvar cancer is basal cell carcinoma, which rarely spreads to regional lymph nodes or distant organs.[90] The third most common subtype is vulvar melanoma. Studies have shown that vulvar melanomas appear to have a different tumor biology and mutational characteristics compared to skin melanomas, which has a direct impact on the medical treatment of vulvar melanomas.[92][93]

ulcers, and changes in vulvar skin coloration. Pelvic pain might also occur especially during urinating and sex.[76] However, a significant proportion remains asymptomatic in early disease stages, often delaying its diagnosis.[90] As such, 32% of women with vulvar melanoma already have regional involvement or distant metastases at the time of diagnosis, which significantly impacts prognosis.[92]

Surgery (with or without removal of regional lymph nodes) is usually the primary treatment modality. Typically, a wide-local excision is performed, in which the tumor is excised including a safety-margin of healthy tissue to ensure its entire removal, which is confirmed by a pathologist.[90] In more advanced disease, a (partial) vulvectomy may need to be performed in order to remove some or all of the vulva.[94] Advanced-stage melanomas can be treated with checkpoint inhibitors.[95]

Other

creams, or it may right itself with the release of hormones at the onset of puberty.[40][96]

Vulvodynia is chronic pain in the vulvar region. There is no single identifiable cause.[97] A subtype of this is vulvar vestibulitis but since this is not thought to be an inflammatory condition it is more usually referred to as vestibulodynia.[98] Vulvar vestibulitis usually affects pre-menopausal women.[98]

Pudendal nerve entrapment can cause sharp pain or numbness in the vulva. This condition can be caused by activities such as cycling, giving birth, or prolonged sitting.

A number of

squamous cell carcinomas.[101] An asymptomatic skin disorder of the vulval vestibule is vestibular papillomatosis, which is characterised by fine, pink projections from either the epithelium of the vulva or from the labia minora. Dermatoscopy can distinguish this condition from genital warts.[102] A subtype of psoriasis, an autoimmune disease, is inverse psoriasis in which red patches can appear in the skin folds of the labia.[103]

Childbirth

The vulvar region is at risk for trauma during childbirth.[104] During childbirth, the vagina and vulva must stretch to accommodate the baby's head (approximately 9.5 cm (3.7 in)). This can result in tears known as perineal tears in the vaginal opening, and other structures within the perineum.[105] An episiotomy (a pre-emptive surgical cutting of the perineum) is sometimes performed to facilitate delivery and limit tearing. A tear takes longer to heal than an incision.[106] Tears and incisions may be repaired using sutures that may be layered.[107][37] Among the methods of hair removal evaluated for pre-surgeries, pubic hair shaving known as prepping, was seen to increase the risk of surgical site infections.[108][106] No advantages have been demonstrated in the routine shaving of pubic hair prior to childbirth.[109]

Surgery

Main articles:
Cosmetic surgery

sex reassignment surgeries.[112][113]

The use of cosmetic surgeries has been criticized by clinicians.[114][115] The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that women be informed of the risks of these surgeries. They refer to the lack of data relevant to their safety and effectiveness and to the potential associated risks such as infection, altered sensation, dyspareunia, adhesions, and scarring.[116] There is also a percentage of people seeking cosmetic surgery who may be suffering from body dysmorphic disorder and surgery in these cases can be counterproductive.[117]

Society and culture

See also: Vagina § Society and culture

Altering the female genitalia

Further information: Genital modification and mutilation
labia pride
movement opposes the ideals of female cosmetic genital surgeries: The Muff March in London, 2011

In some

Khoikhoi and Rwanda cultures, the labia minora are purposefully stretched by repeated pulling on them and sometimes by attaching weights.[118][119][11] Labia stretching is a recognised, familial cultural practice in parts of Eastern and Southern Africa.[118][120][121] This is a desired and encouraged practice by the women (starting at puberty) in order to promote better sexual satisfaction for both parties.[122][11] The achieved extensions can hang down below the labia majora for up to seven inches.[11] Children in the African diaspora practise this too, so it occurs within immigrant communities in, for example, Britain, where a BBC report labelled it a hidden form of child abuse.[123] The girls are subject to familial and social pressure to conform.[124]

In some cultures, including modern Western culture, women have shaved or otherwise

Muslim hygienical jurisprudence a practice of which is the removal of pubic hair.[129]

Vulva piercings include the clitoral hood piercing above and the labia piercing
Derived from traditional symbols, Hanabira scarification is intended to decorate the pubic area

Several forms of genital piercings can be made in the vulva, and include the Christina piercing, the Nefertiti piercing, the fourchette piercing, and labia piercings. Piercings are usually performed for aesthetic purposes, but some forms like the clitoral hood piercing might also enhance pleasure during sex. Though they are common in traditional cultures, intimate piercings are a fairly recent trend in Western society.[130][131][132] Other forms of permanent modifications of the vulva for cultural, decorative or aesthetic reasons are genital tattoos or scarification (so-called "hanabira").

Female genital surgery includes

ISSVD recommend that women seeking these surgeries need to be informed about the lack of data supporting these procedures and the potential associated risks such as infection, altered sensation, dyspareunia, adhesions, and scarring.[116][133]

With the growing popularity of female cosmetic genital surgeries, the practice increasingly draws criticism from an opposition movement of

labia pride movement. The major point of contention is that heavy advertising for these procedures, in combination with a lack of public education, fosters body insecurities in women with larger labia in spite of the fact that there is normal and pronounced individual variation in the size of labia. The preference for smaller labia is a matter of a fashion fad and is without clinical or functional significance.[134][135]

Female genital mutilation

The most prevalent form of non-consensual genital alteration is that of female genital mutilation. This mostly involves the partial or complete removal of the vulva.[136] Female genital mutilation is carried out in thirty countries in Africa and Asia with more than 200 million girls being affected, and some women (as of 2018).[136] Nearly all of the procedures are carried out on young girls. The practices are also carried out globally among migrants from these areas. Female genital mutilation is claimed to be mostly carried out for cultural traditional reasons.[136] According to the research conducted under In the Name of Tradition, FGM/C is more common in Sunni countries and less common in Shia societies.[137][138][139][140]

FGM/C can have harmful effects on their physical and mental health. Various official and unofficial research reports also confirm these complications. In its various reports, the World Health Organization has considered FGM/C as an action that endangers women's health in various ways. This organization stated in a report published in January 2023 that FGM/C has no health benefits, and it harms girls and women in many ways. It involves removing and damaging healthy and normal female genital tissue, and it interferes with the natural functions of girls' and women's bodies. Although all forms of FGM/C are associated with increased risk of health complications, the risk is greater with more severe forms of FGM/C.[141][142][143]

The American National Library of Medicine also stated in an article in 2018 that the consequences of FGM/C have both physiological and psychological complications, including short- and long-term complications. The method in which the procedure is performed may determine the extent of the short-term complications. If the process was completed using unsterile equipment, no antiseptics, and no antibiotics, the victim may have increased risk of complications. Primary infections include staphylococcus infections, urinary tract infections, excessive and uncontrollable pain, and hemorrhaging. Infections such as human immunodeficiency virus (

trachomatis, Clostridium tetani, and herpes simplex virus (HSV) 2 are significantly more common among women who underwent Type 3 mutilation compared with other categories.[144][145][146]

Etymology

An 1822 illustration of a gynaecological examination

The word vulva is Latin for "womb". It derives from the 1540s in referring to the womb and female sexual organs, from the earlier volvere meaning to turn, roll or revolve, with further derivatives such as used in volvox, and volvulus (twisted bowel).[147][148] The naming of the female (and male) genitals as pudenda membra, meaning parts to be ashamed of, dates from the mid-17th century.[149] The naming influenced the general perception of the vulva and this is shown in depicted gynaecological procedures. The examiner shown in the Obstetrical examination dated 1822, is adopting the compromise procedure where the woman's genitals cannot be seen.[150][151]

Terminology

In 2021, a study in the UK showed that few are able to label the structure of the vulva correctly.[152][153][154]

There are many

double entendres, such as pussy, which is used as a term of endearment for a pet cat, "pussy cat".[157][158][159] In North American informal use, the term pussy can also refer to a weak or effeminate man,[160] and fanny is a term used for the buttocks.[161][148] Other slang terms are muff, snatch, and twat.[162][163] Vagina is often incorrectly used as a synonym for vulva since it is separate from that anatomy.[1]

Religion and art

Main article: Vagina and vulva in art

Some cultures have long celebrated and even worshipped the vulva. During the

Sumerian poems praising the vulva of Inanna, the goddess of love, sex, and fertility, have survived.[165] In Sumerian religion, the goddess Ninimma is the divine personification of the vulva.[166][167] Vaginal fluid is always described in Sumerian texts as tasting "sweet"[165] and, in a Sumerian bridal hymn, a young maiden rejoices that her vulva has grown hair.[165] Clay models of vulvas were discovered in the temple of Inanna at Ashur.[168]

Japanese artist Megumi Igarashi with vulva portrayal

Some major

Hindu traditions such as Shaktism, a goddess-centred tradition, revere the vulva and vagina under the name yoni.[169][170] The goddess as Devi is worshipped as the supreme deity.[171] The yoni is a representation of the female deity and is found in many temples as a focus for prayer and offerings.[170] It is also represented symbolically as a mudra in spiritual practices, including yoga.[172]

evil spirits. Another view is that the sheela na gig was a divine assistant in childbirth.[173][174] Starr Goode explores the image and possible meanings of the Sheela na gig and Baubo images in particular, but writes also about the recurring image worldwide. Through hundreds of photographs, she demonstrates that the image of a female displaying her vulva is not specific to European religious art or architecture, but that similar images are found in the visual arts and in mythical narratives of goddesses and heroines parting their thighs to reveal what she calls, "sacred powers". Her theory is that "the image is so rooted in our psyches that it seems as if the icon is the original cosmological center of the human imagination".[175]

L'Origine du monde, an oil painting by Gustave Courbet

Halil Şerif Paşa. The woman used as the model for the painting was probably Halil's lover Constance Quéniaux.[177] However, another potential model is Marie-Anne Detourbay, who was also a lover of Halil Şerif Pasha.[178]

Japanese sculptor and manga artist Megumi Igarashi has focused much of her work on painting and modelling vulvas and vulva-themed works. She has used molds to create dioramas – three-dimensional models of her vulva with the hope of demystifying the female genitals.[179]

An art installation called The Dinner Party by feminist artist, Judy Chicago, portrays a symbolic history of famous women. The dinner plates each depict an elaborate vulval form and they are arranged in a triangular vulva shape.[180] Another installation was made by British artist Jamie McCartney who used the casts of four hundred vulvas to create The Great Wall of Vagina in 2011. The casts are life-size. Explanations written by the project's sexual health adviser accompany these. The purpose of the artist was to "address some of the stigmas and misconceptions that are commonplace".[181][33]

Other animals

As a rule, only the external female genitals of

Nematoda).[182]

For comparison, birds, reptiles, amphibians, some aquatic animals, and the monotremes have a cloaca. An organ system like a vulva does not exist.

The urinary and vaginal openings of a typical mammalian vulva are separated from the

estrus, the clitoris of a mare (female horse) everts as the labia contracts by opening and closing. This is colloquially known as "winking".[183]

All female mammals have a clitoris.[184] Inside the clitoris of many non-human placentals is the baubellum, a small bone that possibly has origins in copulation. In horses and dogs, the clitoris is contained in clitoral fossa, which is a small pouch of tissue.[185][186] Genital papilla is a fleshy flab of tissue on the vulvas of some mammals. The vulva of a spotted hyena has a large clitoris known as a pseudo-penis as well as fused labia (pseudo-scrotum). This can make it difficult to correctly sex the species.

Non-human primates

See also: Clitoris § Non-human primates
Vulva of a Bornean orangutan

Throughout the menstrual cycle, some female primates' vulvar and anal regions will swell (sexual swelling) to attract a male, though the fundamental reason for this function is up for debate.[187]

The structure of the vulva in primates (including humans) differs slightly among other mammals. A significant characteristic is the presence of the labia majora (although a lot of primate species possess this feature until full maturity). Carnivorans and ungulates for example only have one pair of small labia called the labia vulvae, similar to that of the primate labia minora.[188][189][190][191] Because of this, the pudendal cleft refers to the slit between the labia vulvae in non-primates.[191]

Another difference is that the vulval vestibule and clitoral prepuce in other mammals is also called the urogenital sinus (the name of a part in the mammalian embryo)[192] and clitoral sheath respectively.[193][194]

Additional images

  • Vulva hand sign used as a yogic mudra
    Vulva hand sign used as a yogic mudra
  • Attic red-figure lid depicting three vulvae and a winged penis
    Attic red-figure lid depicting three vulvae and a winged penis

See also

Penis – external male reproductive organ

References

Public domain This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1264 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)

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External links

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