Walker circulation
The Walker circulation, also known as the Walker cell, is a conceptual model of the air flow in the
The Walker circulation is associated with the
Changes in the Walker circulation with time occur in conjunction with changes in surface temperature. Some of these changes are forced externally, such as the seasonal shift of the sun into the Northern Hemisphere in summer. Other changes appear to be the result of coupled ocean-atmosphere feedback in which, for example, easterly winds cause the sea surface temperature to fall in the east, enhancing the zonal heat contrast and hence intensifying easterly winds across the basin. These anomalous easterlies induce more equatorial upwelling and raise the thermocline in the east, amplifying the initial cooling by the southerlies. From an oceanographic point of view, the equatorial cold tongue is caused by easterly winds. Were the Earth climate symmetric about the equator, cross-equatorial wind would vanish, and the cold tongue would be much weaker and have a very different zonal structure than is observed today.[3]
The Walker circulation was discovered by Gilbert Walker. The term "Walker circulation" was coined in 1969 by the Norwegian-American meteorologist Jacob Bjerknes.[4]
Walker's methodology
Walker determined that the time scale of a year (used by many studying the atmosphere) was unsuitable because geospatial relationships could be entirely different depending on the season. Thus, Walker broke his temporal analysis into December–February, March–May, June–August, and September–November.
Walker then selected a number of "centers of action", which included areas such as the Indian Peninsula. The centers were in the hearts of regions with either permanent or seasonal high and low pressures. He also added points for regions where rainfall, wind or temperature was an important control.
He examined the relationships of the summer and winter values of pressure and rainfall, first focusing on summer and winter values, and later extending his work to the spring and autumn.
He concludes that variations in temperature are generally governed by variations in pressure and rainfall. It had previously been suggested that sunspots could be the cause of the temperature variations, but Walker argued against this conclusion by showing monthly correlations of sunspots with temperature, winds, cloud cover, and rain that were inconsistent.
Walker made it a point to publish all of his correlation findings, both of relationships found to be important as well as relationships that were found to be unimportant. He did this for the purpose of dissuading researchers from focusing on correlations that did not exist.
Oceanic effects
The Walker Circulations of the tropical Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic basins result in westerly surface winds in Northern Summer in the first basin and easterly winds in the second and third basins. As a result, the temperature structure of the three oceans display dramatic asymmetries. The equatorial Pacific and Atlantic both have cool surface temperatures in Northern Summer in the east, while cooler surface temperatures prevail only in the western Indian Ocean.[6] These changes in surface temperature reflect changes in the depth of the thermocline.[7]
Changes in the Walker Circulation with time occur in conjunction with changes in surface temperature. Some of these changes are forced externally, such as the seasonal shift of the Sun into the Northern Hemisphere in summer. Other changes appear to be the result of coupled ocean-atmosphere feedback in which, for example, easterly winds cause the sea surface temperature to fall in the east, enhancing the zonal heat contrast and hence intensifying easterly winds across the basin. These enhanced easterlies induce more equatorial upwelling and raise the thermocline in the east, amplifying the initial cooling by the southerlies. This coupled ocean-atmosphere feedback was originally proposed by Bjerknes. From an oceanographic point of view, the equatorial cold tongue is caused by easterly winds. Were the earth climate symmetric about the equator, cross-equatorial wind would vanish, and the cold tongue would be much weaker and have a very different zonal structure than is observed today.[8] The Walker cell is indirectly related to upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. This brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks.[9]
El Niño–Southern Oscillation
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2019) |
The Walker circulation is caused by the
During non-El Niño conditions, the Walker circulation is seen at the surface as easterly trade winds that move water and air warmed by the sun toward the west. This also creates ocean upwelling off the coasts of
A scientific study published in May 2006 in the journal
See also
- Atmospheric circulation
- Earth's atmosphere
References
- ^ Bureau of Meteorology. "The Walker Circulation". Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 1 July 2014.
- S2CID 16785385.
- .
- ^ Bjerknes, J. (March 1969) "Atmospheric teleconnections from the equatorial Pacific," Monthly Weather Review, 97 (3) : 163–172. From pp. 167–168: "It seems reasonalble to assume that it is the gradient of sea temperature along the Equator which is the cause of the thermal circulation entered in figure 8. Hereafter, in the present article that circulation will be referred to as the "Walker Circulation" since it can be shown to be an important part of the mechanism of Walker's "Southern Oscillation." " Available at: N.O.A.A.
- ^ a b Rao, C. Hayavando, ed. (1915). The Indian Biographical Dictionary. Madras: Pillar & Co. p. 456. Retrieved 20 March 2010.
- ^ Bureau of Meteorology. "The Walker Circulation". Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 1 July 2014.
- S2CID 16785385.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Ocean-atmosphere interaction in the making of the Walker circulation and equatorial cold tongue
- ISBN 0-632-05098-5
- ISBN 0-632-05098-5[page needed]
- ^ Pidwirny, Michael (2 February 2006). "Chapter 7: Introduction to the Atmosphere". Fundamentals of Physical Geography. physicalgeography.net. Retrieved 30 December 2006.
- ^ "Envisat watches for La Niña". BNSC via the Internet Wayback Machine. 9 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 April 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
- ^ "The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Array: Gathering Data to Predict El Niño". Celebrating 200 Years. NOAA. 8 January 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
- ^ "Ocean Surface Topography". Oceanography 101. JPL. 5 July 2006. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2007."Annual Sea Level Data Summary Report July 2005 – June 2006" (PDF). The Australian Baseline Sea Level Monitoring Project. Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
- ^ Weakening of tropical Pacific atmospheric circulation due to anthropogenic forcing
General references
- Walker Institute, University of Reading, UK. http://www.walker-institute.ac.uk/about/sir_gilbert.htm
- Walker, JM. Pen Portrait of Sir Gilbert Walker, CSI, MA, ScD, FRS. Weather 1997 (Volume 52, No.7, pp. 217–220)
- Walker, G.T. and Bliss, E.W., 1930. World Weather IV, Memoirs of the Royal Meteorological Society, 3, (24), 81–95.
- Walker, G.T. and Bliss, E.W., 1937. World Weather VI, Memoirs of the Royal Meteorological Society, 4, (39), 119–139.
- Walker, G.T., 1923. Correlation in seasonal variations of weather, VIII. A preliminary study of world weather. Memoirs of the India Meteorological Department, 24, (4), 75–131.
- Walker, G.T., 1924. Correlation in seasonal variations of weather, IX. A further study of world weather. Memoirs of the India Meteorological Department, 24, (9),275–333. http://www.rmets.org/about/history/classics.php
- Katz, R.W. Sir Gilbert Walker and a Connection between El Nino and Statistics. Statistical Science, 17 (2002), 97–117. http://amath.colorado.edu/courses/4540/2004Spr/walkerss.pdf
- Climate research summary – Walker Circulation: a tropical atmospheric circulation slow-down Text and graphics from
- Slowdown in tropical Pacific flow pinned on climate change – press release from University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.
- Weakening of tropical Pacific atmospheric circulation due to anthropogenic forcing 4 May 2006 in Nature.
- Associated Press news story, 3 May 2006: "Global Warming Cited in Wind Shift"
- Tropical convective transport and the Walker circulation, 29 October 2012 in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics