War against Nabis
Laconian War | |
---|---|
Argolid | |
Result | Victory of the anti-Spartan coalition |
Territorial changes |
Union of Free Laconians |
- Sparta
- Doric Cretans
- Argos
- Rome
- Achaean League
- Aetolian League
- Macedonia
- Pergamum
- Rhodes
- Titus Quinctius Flamininus
- Eumenes II of Pergamum
- Aristaenos
- c. 50,000[2]
- 98 ships
The Laconian War of 195 BC was fought between the Greek city-state of
During the
As a result of the war, Sparta lost its position as a major power in Greece. Subsequent Spartan attempts to recover the losses failed and Nabis, the last sovereign ruler, was eventually murdered. Soon after, Sparta was forcibly made a member of its former rival, the Achaean League, ending several centuries of fierce political independence.
Background
After the death of the Spartan regent
During the
Nabis's reforms
In return for his assistance in the war, Rome accepted Nabis's possession of the
Nabis's rule was largely based on his social reforms and the rebuilding of Sparta's armed forces. The military of
Preparations
External images | |
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Fighting style of Greek phalangites with long spears during the Roman-Spartan War (Note the late Greek hoplite helmets, with open visors made from several parts rather than the single part as in earlier times. The leg protection was often leather to allow for faster movement. This fighting style was not in use during the | |
Roman soldier from this period (hastatus or princeps) (Celtic steel mail and sandals became widespread after the Second Punic War, while bronze helmets were still in use. The gladius was not yet universal among Roman infantry of the period; reports state that many also used the longer Greek swords. The configuration of the pilum is disputed.)[18] |
The Achaean League was upset that one of its members had remained under Spartan occupation and persuaded the Romans to revisit their decision to leave Sparta's territorial gains intact. The Romans agreed with the Achaeans, as they did not want a strong and re-organized Sparta causing trouble after the Romans left Greece.[1]
In 195 BC, Titus Quinctius Flamininus, the Roman commander in Greece, called a council of the Greek states at
Flamininus first sent an envoy to Sparta, demanding that Nabis either surrender Argos to the Achaean League or face war with Rome and her Greek allies.[22] Nabis refused to comply with Flamininus's ultimatum, so 40,000 Roman soldiers and their Greek allies advanced towards the Peloponnese.[22] Entering the Peloponnese, Flamininus joined his force with that of the Achaean commander, Aristaenos, who had 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry in Cleonae. Together, they advanced towards Argos.[22]
Nabis had appointed his brother-in-law, the
A few survivors from Damocles's group escaped from the city and went to Flamininus's camp. They suggested to Flamininus that, if he moved his camp closer to the city gates, the Argives would revolt against the Spartans.[23]
The Roman commander sent his light infantry and cavalry to find a position for the new camp.[23] Upon spotting the small group of Roman soldiers, a group of Spartan troops sallied forth from the gates and skirmished with the Romans about 300 paces from the city walls. The Romans forced the Spartans to retreat back into the city.[23]
Flamininus moved his camp to the position where the skirmish had occurred. For a day he waited for the Spartans to attack him but, when no attack came, he called a war council to discuss whether or not to press the siege. All the Greek leaders except Aristaenos thought that they should attack the city, as capturing it was their primary objective in going to war.
Laconian campaign
Nabis drafted 10,000 citizens into his army and hired 3,000 additional mercenaries. Nabis's
The coalition army then proceeded to
Eventually, Dexagoridas, one of the two garrison commanders, sent word to the Roman legate that he was willing to surrender the city.[26] This plan fell through when Gorgopas, the other commander, learned of it and slew Dexagoridas with his own hands.[26] Gorgopas continued to resist fiercely until Flamininus arrived with 4,000 additional troops that he had recently recruited.[26] The Romans renewed their assault and Gorgopas was forced to surrender, though he did secure the condition that he and his garrison could leave unharmed and return to Sparta.[26]
Siege of Sparta
During the siege at Gythium, Pythagoras had joined Nabis at Sparta, bringing with him 3,000 men from Argos.
Flamininus replied to Nabis by proposing his own terms, under which Sparta and Rome would conclude a six-month truce if Nabis would surrender Argos with all his garrisons from the
The Romans launched an assault on Sparta and took the walls, but their advance was initially impeded by the narrowness of the roads in the city's outskirts. However, the streets grew wider as they advanced into the city's center, and the Spartans were forced further and further back.[29] Nabis, seeing his defenses collapsing, tried to flee, but Pythagoras rallied the soldiers and ordered them to set fire to the buildings closest to the walls.[29] Burning debris was thrown on the coalition's soldiers entering the city, causing many casualties. Observing this, Flamininus ordered his forces to withdraw to their base.[29] When the attack was renewed later, the Spartans managed to hold off the Roman assaults for three days before Nabis, seeing that the situation was hopeless, decided to send Pythagoras with an offer of surrender.[33] At first, Flaminius refused to see him, but when Pythagoras came to the Roman camp a second time Flamininus accepted the surrender, with the conditions of the treaty being the same as Flamininus had previously proposed.[33] The treaty was later ratified by the Senate.[3]
The Argives revolted when they heard that Sparta was under siege. Under the Argive Archippas, they attacked the garrison commanded by Timocrates of Pellene.[33] Timocrates surrendered the citadel on condition that he and his men could leave unharmed.[33] In return all the Argives serving in Nabis's army were allowed to return home.[33]
Aftermath
After the war Flamininus visited the Nemean Games in Argos and proclaimed the polis free.[2][34] The Argives immediately decided to rejoin the Achaean League. Flamininus also separated all coastal cities of Laconia from Spartan rule and placed them under Achean protection.[2] The remains of Sparta's fleet were put under custody of these coastal cities.[2] Nabis also had to withdraw his garrisons from Cretan cities and revoke several social and economic reforms that had strengthened Sparta's military capabilities.[30][35] The Romans did not, however, remove Nabis from the Spartan throne. Even though Sparta was a landlocked and effectively powerless state, the Romans wanted an independent Sparta to act as a counterweight against the growing Achaean League. Nabis's allegiance was secured by the fact that he had to surrender five hostages, amongst them his son, Armenas.[30] The Romans did not restore the exiles, wishing to avoid internal strife in Sparta. They did, however, allow any woman who was married to an ex-helot but whose husband was in exile to join him.[2][30][35]
After the legions under Flamininus had returned to
Since Sparta's army was now weakened, Nabis appealed to the Aetolians for help.[3] They sent to Sparta 1,000 cavalry under the command of Alexamenus. The story goes that while Nabis was observing his army's drills, the Aetolian commander Alexamenus charged at him and killed him with his lance.[36] Afterwards the Aetolian troops seized the palace and set about looting the city but its Sparta were able to rally and drive them from Sparta.[36] As Sparta was in turmoil Philopoemen entered the city with the Achaean army and made Sparta a member state of the League. The polis of Sparta was allowed to keep its laws and territory, but the exiles, and their rule of the Spartan warrior demos were not restored.[37]
In 189 BC, the hostages taken by Rome, excluding Nabis's son, who fell ill and died, were allowed to return to Sparta.
Notes
- Antigonids in the Battle of Sellasia and the Ptolemys ceased their financial support. From the consequent banishment of Cleomenes III, in 222 BC, until 219 BC, Sparta was a republic without kings. In 219 BC, the Agiad Agesipolis III and the Eurypontid Lycurgus were made kings.[3] Lycurgus deposed Agesipolis in 215 BC,[3] although the latter spent years trying to retake his throne and led a force of Spartan exiles in the Roman-Spartan War.[3] Lycurgus reigned by himself until his death in 210 BC. His successors were his son Pelops, as Eurypontid king, and the tyrant Machanidas, who claimed no royal origin. They reigned together until 207 BC, when Machanidas was slain by Philopoemen in the Battle of Mantinea. After Machanidas's death, Nabis seized the throne in a coup and had Pelops murdered.
- because he had overthrown the old government of Sparta. The home countries of both authors, Rome and the Achean League, were involved in this conflict and considered a possible restoration of one of the toppled governments during this war.
- ^ Cretan in this context can mean someone from the island of Crete, but it also meant a fighting style of archers that could alternately fight with sword and shield. This style was introduced by the inhabitants of Crete, but the troops referred to as Cretans or Cretan archers were by no means all Cretan, particularly in mercenary forces.[9]
- ^ Piracy included not only seaborne ventures against trade ships, but also amphibious operations against coastal settlements with the aim of capturing inhabitants and selling them as slaves. Plautus, a Roman playwright of this time, described the result of such a raid in his play Poenulus.[14]
Citations
- ^ a b c d Holleaux, Rome and the Mediterranean; 218–133 B.C., 190
- ^ a b c d e f Holleaux, Rome and the Mediterranean; 218–133 B.C., 191
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Smith [1]
- ^ Ernst Baltrusch, Sparta, 113
- ^ a b c Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, 302
- ^ Polybius 13.6
- ^ Polybius 16.13
- ^ Livy 32.39
- ^ Appian. "§32". History of Rome: The Syrian Wars. Retrieved 2007-01-14.
- ^ a b Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta: A tale of two Cities, 74
- ^ Livy 32.40
- ^ Livy 33.10
- ^ Livy 33.31
- ^ Plautus. "Poenulus". Retrieved 2007-01-12.
- ^ Warfare in the Classical World, p. 73 (Macedonian infantry) on the equipment of the Macedonian phalangites
- ^ Warfare in the Classical World, pp. 34f (Greek Hoplite (c. 480BC)) p. 67 (Iphicrates reforms)
- ^ "Battle of Marathon". Ancient Mesopotamia. Archived from the original on February 24, 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
- ^ "Roman Conquest". The Romans. Archived from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
- ^ a b Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, 75
- ^ a b Livy 34.24
- ^ Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome, 450
- ^ a b c Livy 34.25
- ^ a b c d e f g h Livy 34.26
- ^ a b Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, 415
- ^ a b Livy 34.30
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Livy 34.29
- ^ a b c d Livy 34.28
- ^ Livy 34.33
- ^ a b c d e Livy 34.39
- ^ a b c d Livy 34.35
- ^ Livy 34.37
- ^ Livy 34.38
- ^ a b c d e Livy 34.40
- ^ Livy 34.41
- ^ a b c Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, 76
- ^ a b Livy 35.35
- ^ Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, 77
- ^ a b c d e f Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, 78
- ^ Polybius 21.2
- ^ Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, 423
- ^ Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, 79
- ^ "Ancient coins of Peloponnesus". Digital Historia Numorum. Retrieved 2006-01-12.
References
Primary sources
- ISBN 0-14-044318-5.
- ISBN 0-14-044362-2.
Secondary sources
- Ernst Baltrusch, (1998). Sparta. Munich: C.H. Beck. ISBN 3-406-41883-X
- ISBN 0-415-26277-1
- ISBN 0-500-01485-X.
- ISBN 0-520-05737-6
- Maurice Holleaux, (1930). Cambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean; 218–133 B.C., (1st edition) Vol VIII. Los Angeles: Cambridge University Press.
- William Smith, (1873). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London: John Murray.
- John Warry (1995; edition 2006). Warfare in the Classical World London (UK), University of Oklahoma Press, Norman Publishing Division of the University by special arrangement with Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN 0-8061-2794-5