War film
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War film is a
Nations such as China, Indonesia, Japan, and Russia have their own traditions of war film, centred on their own revolutionary wars but taking varied forms, from action and historical drama to wartime romance.
Subgenres, not necessarily distinct, include
Genre
The war film genre is not necessarily tightly defined: the
The film critic Stephen Neale suggests that the genre is for the most part well defined and uncontentious, since war films are simply those about war being waged in the 20th century, with combat scenes central to the drama. However, Neale notes, films set in the
The film historian Jeanine Basinger states that she began with a preconception of what the war film genre would be, namely that:
What I knew in advance was what presumably every member of our culture would know about World War II combat films—that they contained a
military objective of some sort. They take place in the actual combat zones of World War II, against the established enemies, on the ground, the sea, or in the air. They contain many repeated events, such as mail call, all presented visually with appropriate uniforms, equipment, and iconography of battle.[10]
Further, Basinger considers Bataan to provide a definition-by-example of "the World War II combat film", in which a diverse and apparently unsuited group of "hastily assembled volunteers" hold off a much larger group of the enemy through their "bravery and tenacity".[11] She argues that the combat film is not a subgenre but the only genuine kind of war film. Since she notes that there were in fact only five true combat films made during the Second World War, in her view these few films, central to the genre, are outweighed by the many other films that are only just war films.[12] However, other critics such as Russell Earl Shain propose a far broader definition of war film, to include films that deal "with the roles of civilians, espionage agents, and soldiers in any of the aspects of war (i.e. preparation, cause, prevention, conduct, daily life, and consequences or aftermath.)"[13] Neale points out that genres overlap, with combat scenes for different purposes in other types of film, and suggests that war films are characterised by combat which "determines the fate of the principal characters". This in turn pushes combat scenes to the climactic ends of war films.[6] Not all critics agree, either, that war films must be about 20th-century wars. James Clarke includes Edward Zwick's Oscar-winning Glory (1990) among the war films he discusses in detail; it is set in the American Civil War, and he lists six other films about that war which he considers "notable".[14][a] The screenwriter and scholar Eric R. Williams identifies war films as one of eleven super-genres in his screenwriters' taxonomy, claiming that all feature-length narrative films can be classified as belonging to one of them.[b][16]
The British military historian Antony Beevor "despair[s]" at how film-makers from America and Britain "play fast and loose with the facts", yet imply that "their version is as good as the truth".[17] For example, he calls the 2000 American film U-571 a "shameless deception" for pretending that a US warship had helped to win the Battle of the Atlantic—seven months before America entered the war.[17] He is equally critical of Christopher Nolan's 2017 film Dunkirk with its unhistorically empty beaches, low-level air combat over the sea, and rescues mainly by the "little ships".[17] Beevor feels, however, that Continental European film-makers are often "far more scrupulous"; for example, in his view the 2004 German film Downfall accurately depicted the historical events of Hitler's final days in his Berlin bunker,[17] and he considers the 1965 French film The 317th Platoon, set in Vietnam, "the greatest war movie ever made". The 1966 film The Battle of Algiers is, he argues, a close second.[17]
History
American Civil War
The costliest war in U.S. history in terms of American life, this war has been the subject of, or the backdrop to, numerous films, documentaries and mini-series. One of the earliest films using the Civil War as its subject was
The Spanish–American War
The first war films come from the Spanish–American War of 1898. Short "actualities"—documentary film-clips—included Burial of the Maine Victims, Blanket-Tossing of a New Recruit, and Soldiers Washing Dishes. These non-combat films were accompanied by "reenactments" of fighting, such as of Theodore Roosevelt's "Rough Riders" in action against the Spanish, staged in the United States.[26]
First World War
During the First World War, many films were made about life in the war. Topics included prisoners of war, covert operations, and military training. Both the Central Powers and the Allies produced war documentaries. The films were also used as propaganda in neutral countries like the United States. Among these was a film shot on the Eastern Front by official war photographer to the Central Powers, Albert K. Dawson: The Battle and Fall of Przemysl (1915), depicting the Siege of Przemyśl, disastrous for the Austrians, with incidents reenacted using soldiers as extras.[27][28]
The 1915 Australian film Within Our Gates (also known as Deeds that Won Gallipoli) by Frank Harvey was described by the Motion Picture News as "a really good war story, which is exceptional".[29]
The 1916 British film The Battle of the Somme, by two official cinematographers, Geoffrey Malins and John McDowell, combined documentary and propaganda, seeking to give the public an impression of what trench warfare was like. Much of the film was shot on location at the Western Front in France; it had a powerful emotional impact. It was watched by some 20 million people in Britain in its six weeks of exhibition, making it what the critic Francine Stock called "one of the most successful films of all time".[30][31]
The 1925 American film
Many of the films promoted as "documentaries" added context to authentic battlefield scenes by staging critical events, and invented episodes and dialog to enhance excitement at the cost of authenticity.[39]
Finnish Civil War
Although the 1918 Finnish Civil War between Whites and Reds remained a controversial topic a century later in Finland,[40][41] many Finnish filmmakers have taken up the subject, often basing their work on a book. In 1957, Toivo Särkkä's 1918, based on Jarl Hemmer's play and novel, was screened at the 7th Berlin International Film Festival.[42] Recent films include Lauri Törhönen's 2007 The Border,[43][44] and Aku Louhimies's 2008 Tears of April, based on Leena Lander's novel.[45] Perhaps the most famous film about the Finnish Civil War is Edvin Laine's 1968 Here, Beneath the North Star, based on the first two books of Väinö Linna's Under the North Star trilogy; it describing the civil war from the losing side, Finland's Red Guards.[46]
Spanish Civil War
The
Korean War
Samuel Fuller's The Steel Helmet (1951) was made during the Korean War (1950–1953). The critic Guy Westwell notes that it questioned the conduct of the war, as did later films like The Bridges at Toko-Ri (1954) and Pork Chop Hill (1959).[50] Fuller agreed that all his films were anti-war. No Hollywood films about the Korean War did well at the box office; the historian Lary May suggested in 2001 that they reminded American viewers of "the only war we have lost".[51]
In 1955, after the fighting, the successful
Films in
Algerian War
Vietnam War
Few films before the late 1970s about the Vietnam War actually depicted combat;[56] exceptions include The Green Berets (1968).[56] Critics such as Basinger explain that Hollywood avoided the subject because of opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War, making the subject divisive; in addition, the film industry was in crisis, and the army did not wish to assist in making anti-war films.[56][57]
From the late 1970s, independently financed and produced films showed Hollywood that Vietnam could be treated in film. Successful but very different portrayals of the war in which America had been defeated included Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter (1978), and Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979).[56] With the shift in American politics to the right in the 1980s, military success could again be shown in films such as Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986), Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987) and John Irvin's Hamburger Hill (1987).[56]
The Vietnamese director Nguyễn Hồng Sến 's The Abandoned Field: Free Fire Zone (Cánh đồng hoang, 1979) gives an "unnerving and compelling .. subjective-camera-eye-view" of life under helicopter fire in the Mekong Delta during the Vietnam War. The film cuts to an (American) "helicopter-eye view", contrasting painfully with the human tenderness seen earlier.[58]
Later wars
Dino Mustafić's Remake (2003), written by Zlatko Topčić, tells the parallel coming-of-age stories of a father living in Sarajevo during World War II and his son living through the Siege of Sarajevo during the Bosnian War. According to Topčić, the story is based on incidents from his own life.[59][60]
The Iraq War served as the background story of U.S. movies, like The Hurt Locker from 2008, Green Zone from 2010,[61] and American Sniper from 2014.
The
Second World War
Made by Western Allies
The first popular Allied war films made during the Second World War came from Britain and combined the functions of documentary and propaganda. Films such as The Lion Has Wings and Target for Tonight were made under the control of the Films Division of the Ministry of Information. The British film industry began to combine documentary techniques with fictional stories in films like Noël Coward and David Lean's In Which We Serve (1942)—"the most successful British film of the war years"[62]—Millions Like Us (1943), and The Way Ahead (1944).[63]
In America, documentaries were produced in various ways: General Marshall commissioned the Why We Fight propaganda series from Frank Capra; the War Department's Information-Education Division started out making training films for the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy; the Army made its own through the U.S. Signal Corps, including John Huston's The Battle of San Pietro.[64] Hollywood made films with propaganda messages about America's allies, such as Mrs. Miniver (1942), which portrayed a British family on the home front;[65] Edge of Darkness (1943) showed Norwegian resistance fighters,[66] and The North Star (1943) showed the Soviet Union and its Communist Party.[67] Towards the end of the war popular books provided higher quality and more serious stories for films such as Guadalcanal Diary (1943),[68] Mervyn LeRoy's Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944),[69] and John Ford's They Were Expendable (1945).[70]
The Soviet Union, too, appreciated the propaganda value of film, to publicise both victories and German atrocities. Ilya Kopalin's documentary
Feature films made in the west during the war were subject to censorship and were not always realistic in nature. One of the first to attempt to represent violence, and which was praised at the time for "gritty realism", was Tay Garnett's Bataan (1943). The depiction actually remained stylised. Jeanine Basinger gives as an example the "worst image for stark violence" when a Japanese soldier beheads an American: the victim shows pain and his lips freeze in a scream, yet no blood spurts and his head does not fall off. Basinger points out that while this is physically unrealistic, psychologically it may not have been. The wartime audience was, she points out, well aware of friends and relatives who had been killed or who had come home wounded.[74]
Made by Axis powers
The Axis powers similarly made films during the Second World War, for propaganda and other purposes. In Germany, the army high command brought out Sieg im Westen ("Victory in the West", 1941).[75] Other Nazi propaganda films had varied subjects, as with Kolberg (1945), which depicts stubborn Prussian resistance in the Siege of Kolberg (1807) to the invading French troops under Napoleon.[76] The propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels chose the historical subject as suitable for the worsening situation facing Nazi Germany when it was filmed from October 1943 to August 1944. At over eight million marks, using thousands of soldiers as extras and 100 railway wagonloads of salt to simulate snow, it was the most costly German film made during the war. The actual siege ended with the surrender of the town; in the film, the French generals abandon the siege.[77]
For Japan, the war began with the
Postwar
According to Andrew Pulver of The Guardian, the public fascination with war films became an "obsession", with over 200 war films produced in each decade of the 1950s and 1960s.[82] War film production in the United Kingdom and United States reached its zenith in the mid-1950s. [83] Its popularity in the United Kingdom was brought on by the critical and commercial success of Charles Frend's The Cruel Sea (1953).[83] Like others of the period, The Cruel Sea was based on a bestselling novel, in this case the former naval commander Nicholas Monsarrat's story of the battle of the Atlantic.[84][85] Others, like The Dam Busters (1954), with its exciting tale of the inventor Barnes Wallis's unorthodox bouncing bomb and its distinctive theme music, were true stories. The Dam Busters became the most popular film in Britain in 1955,[86] and remained a favourite as of 2015 with a 100% score on Rotten Tomatoes,[87] though, partly because it celebrated an "exclusively British [victory]", it failed in the American market.[88] A large number of war films were made in the 1955–1958 period in particular. In 1957 alone, Bitter Victory, Count Five and Die, The Enemy Below, Ill Met by Moonlight, Men in War, The One That Got Away, and Seven Thunders, and the highly successful, critically acclaimed pictures The Bridge on the River Kwai (which won the Academy Award for Best Picture that year[89]) and Paths of Glory were released.[90] Some, such as Bitter Victory, focused more on the psychological battle between officers and egotism rather than events during the war.[91] The Bridge on the River Kwai brought a new complexity to the war picture, with a sense of moral uncertainty surrounding war. By the end of the decade the "sense of shared achievement" which had been common in war films "began to evaporate", according to Pulver.[82]
Zanuck, by then an executive at
Steven Spielberg's Saving Private Ryan (1998) uses hand-held camera, sound design, staging, and increased audio-visual detail to defamiliarise viewers accustomed to conventional combat films, so as to create what film historian Stuart Bender calls "reported realism", whether or not the portrayal is genuinely more realistic.[102] Jeanine Basinger notes that critics experienced it as "groundbreaking and anti-generic", with, in James Wolcott's words, a "desire to bury the cornball, recruiting poster legend of John Wayne: to get it right this time"; and that combat films have always been "grounded in the need to help an audience understand and accept war".[74] Its success revived interest in World War II films.[103] Others tried to portray the reality of the war, as in Joseph Vilsmaier's Stalingrad (1993), which The New York Times said "goes about as far as a movie can go in depicting modern warfare as a stomach-turning form of mass slaughter".[104]
Military–film industry relations
Many war films have been produced with the cooperation of a nation's military forces. Since the Second World War, the
National traditions
Chinese
The first Chinese war films were newsreels like
Indonesian
Many
The more recent Merdeka (Freedom) trilogy (2009–2011), starting with
Karya's
Soviet
War has been the Soviet Union's cinema's major genre, becoming known indeed as the "cinema front", and its war films ranged from grim portrayals of atrocities to sentimental and even quietly subversive accounts.
The many Soviet films about the Second World War include both large-scale epics such as
Japanese
Japanese directors have made popular films such as
Subgenres
Documentary
The wartime authorities in both Britain and America produced a wide variety of
Propaganda
During the Second World War, film propaganda was widely used. Kenneth Clark advised the British government that "If we renounced interest in entertainment as such, we might be deprived of a valuable weapon for getting across our propaganda"; he suggested using documentaries about the war and the war effort; celebrations of Britishness; and films about British life and character. Michael Powell and Clark agreed on a story about survivors of a U-boat crew, imbued with brutal Nazi ideology, travelling across Canada and meeting various kind, tolerant and intelligent Canadians, to encourage America into the war. The resulting film, 49th Parallel (1941), became the top film at British offices that year.[137] Entertaining films could carry messages about the need for vigilance, too, as in Went the Day Well? (1942) or the avoidance of "careless talk", as in The Next of Kin (1942).[63]
In America,
During the Cold War, "propaganda played as much of a role in the United States' struggle with the Soviet Union as did the billions of dollars spent on weaponry."[140] Face to Face with Communism (1951) dramatised an imagined invasion of the United States; other films portrayed threats such as communist indoctrination.[140]
Submarine
Prisoner of war
A popular subgenre of war films in the 1950s and 1960s was the
Comedy
British cinema in the Second World War marked the evacuation of children from London with social comedies such as
Animated
Japanese anime films from the 1960s onwards addressed national memories of war. Akira (1988) moves from the atomic destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to apocalyptic visions of global conflict; Grave of the Fireflies (1988) is elegiac on the effect of war on children.[158][159] Barefoot Gen (1983) portrays the bombing of Hiroshima through the eyes of a child,[160] but reviewers consider it a less well made film than Grave of the Fireflies with "stomach-churning detail" bizarrely paired with crude artwork, giving it the look of a "Saturday morning Warner Brothers cartoon".[161]
Anti-war
The anti-war genre began with films about the First World War. Films in the genre are typically revisionist, reflecting on past events and often generically blended.
Mixed genres
Comedy gave scope for
Other genres were combined in Franklin J. Schaffner's Patton (1970), about real life General George S. Patton, where combat scenes were interleaved with commentary about how he waged war, showing good and bad sides to a command. It and MASH became the two most profitable war/anti-war films made up to that time,[169] and Patton won seven Academy Awards.[170]
Notes
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- Stites, Richard (1992). Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society Since 1900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36986-2.
- Suid, Lawrence H. (2002). Guts & Glory: The Making of the American Military Image in Film (2nd ed.). University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-813-15808-2)
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Further reading
- Castellan, James W.; van Dopperen, Ron; Graham, Cooper C. (2014). American Cinematographers in the Great War, 1914–1918. New Barnet. ISBN 978-0-86196-717-9.
- DeBauche, Leslie Midkiff (1997). Reel Patriotism: the Movies and World War I. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-15400-9.
- Kane, Kathryn R. (1982). Visions of War: Hollywood Combat Films of World War II. UMI Research. ISBN 0-8357-1286-9.
- Lim, Song Hwee; Ward, Julian (2011). The Chinese Cinema Book. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-84457-580-0.
- Slater, Jay (2009). Under Fire: a century of war movies. Ian Allan Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7110-3385-6.
- Stites, Richard (1995). Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-35403-X.
- Taylor, Mark (2003). The Vietnam War in History, Literature, and Film. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-1401-6.
External links
- Imperial War Museum: First World War Film Collection Archived 2015-06-27 at the Wayback Machine
- Mobilizing Movies! The U.S. Signal Corps Goes to War, 1917-1919, Documentary on the U.S. film effort during the First World War (2017)
- Archived 2015-06-27 at the Wayback Machine
- Michael Wilmington & Dann Gire: World on War: A Film Discussion
- British Film Institute: 10 great battleship and war-at-sea films