War in the Hebrew Bible

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War in the Hebrew Bible concerns any

In modern times, biblical scholars have questioned the historicity of the Bible, including military events narrated in it. They have noted some discrepancies and contradictions between various descriptions of wars and battles. For example, with the exception of the first verse, scholars have long recognised and studied the parallels between chapter 1 of Judges and chapters 13 to 19 in the preceding Book of Joshua.^[1] Both provide similar accounts of the purported conquest of Canaan by the ancient Israelites. Judges 1 and Joshua 15–19 present two accounts of a slow, gradual, and only partial conquest by individual Israelite tribes, marred by defeats, in stark contrast with the 10th and 11th chapters of the Book of Joshua, which portray a swift and complete victory of a united Israelite army under the command of Joshua.^[2]

In cases such as the War against the Midianites found in Numbers 31, the scholarly consensus is that the war did not take place, certainly not as narrated.^[3][4]: 66 Rather than describing what really happened in the past, the author(s) of Numbers 31 most likely wished to convey a certain theological message about who Yahweh, Moses, Eleazar and Phinehas were, and how powerful the Israelites would be if Yahweh was on their side.^[3]

Sometimes, the Hebrew Bible contains the only known sources of a battle, such as in the case of the Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC) (primarily the books of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and 2 Kings). In other cases, there are extrabiblical sources that attest to a military event having happened, such as the Fall of Nineveh (612 BCE); it is not only the main topic of the books of Nahum and Jonah, but also described in the Persica of the Greek writer Ctesias, and the Babylonian "Fall of Nineveh" chronicle found on a clay tablet. There are also some wars involving the ancient Israelites/Jews that have not been recorded in the Hebrew Bible, but that have been attested in other biblical writings (as well as extrabiblical sources), such as the Maccabean Revolt in the Greek Deuterocanonical books of the Maccabees, or the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) that is referenced in the Greek New Testament. Sometimes archaeology can provide some additional evidence in favour or against a purported biblical battle having happened or not.

War in the Pentateuch

Battle of Siddim

In Genesis 14:1–17, the Battle of the Vale of Siddim is narrated, also often called the War of Nine Kings or the Slaughter of Chedorlaomer. It occurs in the days of

The Northern forces overwhelmed the Southern kings of the Jordan plain, driving some of them into the asphalt or tar pits that littered the valley. Those who escaped fled to the mountains, including the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah. These two cities were then spoiled of their goods and provisions and some of their citizens were captured. Among the captives was Abraham's nephew, Lot.^[22] Abraham, staying in Elonei Mamrei with Aner and Eshcol, immediately mounted a rescue operation, arming 318 of his trained servants, who went in pursuit of the enemy armies that were returning to their homelands. They caught up with them in the city of Dan, flanking the enemy on multiple sides during a night raid. The attack ran its course as far as Hobah, north of Damascus, where he defeated Chedorlaomer and his forces. Abram recovered all the goods and the captives (including Lot).^[23] After the battle, Melchizedek, king of Salem, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abraham, who gave him a tenth of the plunder as tithes. Then Bera, king of Sodom, came to Abraham and thanked him, requesting that he keep the plunder but return his people. Abraham declined, saying, "I swore I would never take anything from you, so you can never say 'I have made Abraham rich.'" What Abraham accepted from Bera instead was food for his 318 men and his Amorite neighbours.^[24]

Whether this event occurred in history has been disputed by scholars.^[25] According to Ronald Hendel, "The current consensus is that there is little or no historical memory of pre-Israelite events in Genesis."^[26]

Crossing the Red Sea

This section is an excerpt from Crossing the Red Sea.[edit]

The Crossing of the Red Sea or Parting of the Red Sea (Hebrew: קריעת ים סוף, romanized: Kriat Yam Suph, lit. "parting of the sea of reeds")^[27] is an episode in the origin myth of The Exodus in the Hebrew Bible.

It tells of the escape of the Israelites, led by Moses, from the pursuing Egyptians, as recounted in the Book of Exodus.^[28] Moses holds out his staff and God parts the waters of the Yam Suph, which is traditionally presumed to be the Red Sea, although other interpretations have arisen. With the water dispersed, the Israelites were able to walk on dry ground and cross the sea, followed by the Egyptian army. Once the Israelites have safely crossed, Moses drops his staff, closing the sea, and drowning the pursuing Egyptians.

No archaeological, scholar-verified evidence has been found that supports a crossing of the Red Sea. Given the lack of evidence for the biblical account, some have searched for explanations as to what may have inspired the biblical authors' narrative, or to provide a natural explanation.

Battle of Refidim

The Battle of Refidim (or Rephidim), as described in Exodus 17:8–13, was a battle between the Israelites and the Amalekites, which occurred in Rephidim while the former were moving towards the Promised Land.

According to Exodus 17:8–13, following the Israelites' escape from Egypt they camped in Rephidim. The battle began with the Amalekites' unprovoked attack against the Israelites (Exodus 17:8). Afterwards, Yahweh announced the extermination of the Amalekites and called on Israel to defeat them, stating that Israel would experience peace with their enemies (Exodus 17:14, Deuteronomy 25:19). This was the first of several conflicts over several hundred years between the Amalekites and Israelites.^[29]

Moses urged the faithful to fight and placed his people under the leadership of Joshua. The words, "that will hold up the rod of God," could be an expression of his beliefs about impending victory in the coming battle, since they fought under the banner of God. Moses watched from above. When he held his hands up, Israel gained the military advantage. Whenever he put his hands down, according to the Biblical account, they began to lose. The Bible describes how when Moses became tired, his closest relatives, Hur and Aaron, held up his hands for support (Exodus 17:12). The battle lasted until the evening, ending in victory for the Israelites.

The Book of Exodus mentions the curse-punishment thrown at enemies of the chosen people, the children of Israel. The Amalekites were to be erased from history. Curses with similar overtones are also recorded in the Book of Jeremiah (Jer 2:3). After the success of the Israeli military, it erected an altar – Yahweh-Nissi (Heb. יְהוָה נִסִּי) – denoting "The Lord is my banner." The name refers to the sticks held by Moses.

Golden calf massacre

In Exodus 32:26–28, it is narrated that Moses ordered the Levites to carry out a massacre amongst the Israelites as a punishment for making and worshipping the golden calf in his absence.

Conquest of Bashan

Numbers 21:33–35 and Deuteronomy 3:1–7 narrate that Moses and the Israelites conquer Bashan after destroying the entire army of king Og. Deuteronomy adds that they also exterminate the entire population, comprising 60 cities.

War against the Midianites

This section is an excerpt from Numbers 31.[edit]

Midianites.^[30][31]

Set in the southern Transjordnian regions of Moab and Midian, it narrates the Israelites waging war against the Midianites, commanded by Phinehas and Moses. They killed the men, including their five kings and Balaam, burnt their settlements and took captive the women, children and livestock. Moses commanded the Israelites to kill the boys and women who had sex with men and spare the virgin girls for themselves.The spoils of war were then divided between Eleazar, the Levitical priesthood, soldiers and Yahweh.^{[32][note 1]}

Much scholarly and religious controversy exists surrounding the authorship, meaning and ethics of this chapter of Numbers.^[32] It is closely connected to Numbers 25.^[33]: 69

War in the historical books

The

Narratives of the purported conquest of Canaan by the Israelites can be primarily found in Joshua chapters 2–19, and Judges 1. The Book of Joshua contains the most elaborate account. Judges 1 and Joshua 15–19 present two accounts of a slow, gradual, and only partial conquest by individual Israelite tribes, marred by defeats, in stark contrast with the 10th and 11th chapters of the Book of Joshua, which portray a swift and complete victory of a united Israelite army under the command of Joshua.^[2]

Battle of Jericho

Joshua 5:13–6:27 narrates the Battle of Jericho. Joshua, the leader of the Israelites, sent two spies to Jericho, the first city of Canaan that they decided to conquer, and discovered that the land was in fear of them and their God. According to Joshua 6:1–27, the Israelites marched around the walls once every day for six days with the priests carrying the Ark of the Covenant. On the seventh day they marched seven times around the walls, then the priests blew their ram's horns, the Israelites raised a great shout, and the walls of the city fell. Following God's law they killed every man and woman of every age, as well as the oxen, sheep, and donkeys. Only Rahab, a Canaanite prostitute who had sheltered the spies, her parents, brothers and all "those who belonged to her" were spared. Joshua then cursed anybody who rebuilt the foundations and gates, with the deaths of their firstborn and youngest child respectively. This was eventually fulfilled by Hiel the Bethelite under King Ahab's reign.

The Battle is described as the first

Judges 1 does not mention Jericho, although some Bible translations identify the "City of Palms" mentioned in Judges 1:16 with Jericho. Even so, the verse does not indicate the city was taken by military force, nor is it the first city the Israelites conquered according to Judges 1, which starts with the defeat of king Adoni-Bezek of the unidentified place "Bezek" (Judges 1:4–7), after which Jerusalem was supposedly taken and sacked (Judges 1:8).^[39]

Battle of Ai

In

According to Joshua 11, the Battle of the Waters of Merom was a battle between the Israelites and a coalition of Canaanite city-states near the Waters of Merom. Archaeologist Nadav Na'aman has suggested that this battle may never have taken place, and that its narrative might have "preserved some remote echoes of wars conducted in these places in early Iron Age I."^[41]

In the biblical narrative, around 40 years before the battle, the Israelites escaped from slavery in Egypt, setting out for the Exodus under the leadership of Moses. They entered Canaan near Jericho and captured several cities.^[42] An alliance of northern Canaanite city-states sent a united force to halt the Israelite invasion. The Israelites counterattacked, catching the Canaanite forces unaware and routing them with a fearsome head-on assault.

Period of judges

Battle of Mount Tabor

The Battle of Mount Tabor is described in the

The Israelites had been oppressed for twenty years by the Canaanite king Jabin, and by the captain of his army, Sisera, who commanded a force of nine hundred iron chariots. At this time, the prophetess Deborah was judging Israel. She summoned the general Barak, telling him that God commanded him to march on Mount Tabor with an Israelite army and God promised him he would "deliver them" (the Canaanites) into Barak's "power".^[43] Barak was hesitant and told Deborah that he would not undertake the campaign unless she accompanied him. The prophetess agreed to come, but scolded Barak, telling him that "you shall not gain the glory in the expedition on which you are setting out, for the Lord will have Sisera fall into the power of a woman."^[44] Deborah, Barak and the army gathered at Kedesh, its number rising to 10,000 warriors recruited from the tribes of Naphtali and Zebulun.^[45]

The Israelites marched to

The episode of the Levite's concubine, also known as the Benjamite War,^[51] is presented in Judges 19–21 (chapters 19, 20 and 21 of the Book of Judges).

A

On the third day the confederated Israelites set men in ambush all around Gibeah. They formed into formation as before and the rebelling Benjaminites went out to meet them. The rebelling Benjaminites killed about thirty in the highways and in the field, anticipating another victory where unaware of the trap that had been set as the confederated Israelites appeared to retreat and the Benjaminites were drawn away from the city to the highways in pursuit, one of which goes up to Bethel and the other to Gibeah. Those besieging the city sent up a great cloud of smoke as a signal, and the Israelite main force wheeled around to attack. When the Benjaminites saw their city in flames, and that the retreat had been a ruse, they panicked and routed toward the desert, pursued by the confederated Israelites. About 600 survived the onslaught and made for the more defensible rock of Rimmon where they remained for four months. The Israelites withdrew through the territory off Benjamin, destroying every city they came to, killing every inhabitant and all the livestock.[55]

According to scholars, the biblical text describing the battle and the events surrounding it is considerably late in date, originating close to the time of the

The confederated tribes had vowed that none would give his daughter to the Benjamites (or Benjaminites) for marriage, but after killing all but 600 Benjamites, the tribes were overcome by remorse, fearing that it would cause the extinction of an entire tribe. They circumvented the oath by pillaging and massacring the city of Jabesh-Gilead, none of whose residents partook in the war or in the vow, thereby capturing its 400 maidens for the Benjaminites. The 200 men still lacking women were subtly allowed to abduct the maidens dancing at Shiloh. Ken Steven Brown (2015) drew comparisons between Judges 21 and Numbers 31, stating: "This command [in Numbers 31:17–18] to kill all but the virgin girls is without precedent in the Pentateuch. However, [Judges 21] precisely parallels Moses's command. (...) Like Num 25, the story recounted in Judges 19–21 centers on the danger of apostasy, but its tale of civil war and escalating violence also emphasizes the tragedy that can result from the indiscriminate application of חרם [herem, meaning 'devotion to Yahweh, usually for complete destruction']. The whole account is highly ironic: the Israelites set out to avenge the rape of one woman, only to authorize the rapes of six hundred more. They regret the results of one slaughter, so they commit another to repair it".^{[4]: 77–78}

Battle of Aphek

During this battle, described in the First Book of Samuel 4:1–10 of the Hebrew Bible, the Philistines defeated the Israelite army and captured the Ark of the Covenant. Among biblical scholars, the historicity of the early events in the Books of Samuel is debated, with some scholars leaning toward many events in Samuel being historical, and some scholars leaning towards less.^[58] (See also Biblical minimalism and Biblical maximalism.)

The

The united monarchy period in the Hebrew Bible stretches from the establishment of a supposed Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy) under Saul, David, and Solomon, until it split into the northern Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and the southern Kingdom of Judah (Jerusalem) during the rule of Rehoboam (c. 930 BCE).

Battle of Michmash

The biblical Battle of Michmash (alternate spelling, Michmas) was fought between

The full strength of the Philistine armies at Michmash has been debated. According to Josephus and some versions of the Bible, the Philistines dispatched a force of 30,000 chariots, 6,000 horsemen, and a large number of infantry against King Saul's army, but it is believed that the Philistines supplied way fewer than 30,000 chariots to the battlefield. The actual size and strength of the Philistine army is estimated at over 40,000 men, consisting of 6,000 horsemen and about 3,000 special hamashhith units. Each hamashhith was composed of a chariot carrying 2 men, a charioteer and an archer with javelins, bows, and arrows, and three squads of infantry runners, 4-men each. The infantry runners, also wearing leather breastplates and armed with swords, spears, and round bronze shields, would have numbered more than 30,000 men in total strength. Add in the charioteers and archers mounted in the chariots and the 6,000 horsemen, the Philistines mustered a total of 48,000 soldiers against the Israelites.

As described in 1 Samuel 13, "Saul, and Jonathan his son, and the people that were present with them, abode in Gibeah of Benjamin, but the Philistines encamped in Michmash."^[62] Jonathan is recalled to have found a secret path around the Philistines, allowing him to flank them and defeat them.^[63] Jonathan silently approached the Philistine garrison with his armour-bearer, not telling his father of the act, and passed two rocky crags: "there was a sharp rock on the one side, and a sharp rock on the other side: and the name of the one was Bozez and the name of the other Seneh."^[64] The two single-handedly climbed the ramparts and attacked the garrison "within as it were an half acre of land, which a yoke of oxen might plough." They are said to have killed twenty men together in that single ambush. The remainder of the camp awoke with confusion, and "melted away and they went on beating down one another."^[65] During the confusion and chaos, a detachment of Israelite warriors had previously been fighting alongside the Philistines defected over to the army of King Saul, bringing the king's force from six hundred men to several thousand strong. Finally, a miraculous earthquake threw the entire Philistine host into disarray. Drawn by the sounds of combat, Saul approached the garrison with his own force only to find that the army had already torn itself apart in fear, with the majority of survivors fleeing from Saul's army. No account in the Bible tells us how many Philistines fell in the battle, though Josephus numbers the Philistine casualties to as many as 60,000.

Pool of Gibeon

The Pool of

Abner the son of Ner, and the servants of Ish-bo'sheth the son of Saul, went out from Mahana'im to Gibeon. And Jo'ab the son of Zeru'iah, and the servants of David, went out and met them at the pool of Gibeon; and they sat down, the one on the one side of the pool, and the other on the other side of the pool. And Abner said to Jo'ab, "Let the young men arise and play before us." And Jo'ab said, "Let them arise." Then they arose and passed over by number, twelve for Benjamin and Ish-bo'sheth the son of Saul, and twelve of the servants of David. And each caught his opponent by the head, and thrust his sword in his opponent's side; so they fell down together. Therefore that place was called Hel'kath-hazzu'rim, which is at Gibeon. And the battle was very fierce that day; and Abner and the men of Israel were beaten before the servants of David. (2 Samuel 2:12–17)

The remains of Gibeon were excavated in the late 1950s and early 1960s by a team of archeologists led by University of Pennsylvania archaeologist James B. Pritchard. The pool itself was unearthed in 1957.^[67] The Pool of Gibeon, "one of the ancient world's remarkable engineering achievements", was dug 88 feet into limestone until it met the water table. A spiral staircase along the walls allowed access to the water, according to the archeologists that excavated the site.^[68]

Siege of Jebus

The Siege of Jebus is described in passages of the

The identification of Jebus with Jerusalem has been challenged. Danish biblical scholar Niels Peter Lemche notes that every non-biblical mention of Jerusalem found in the ancient Near East refers to the city with the name of Jerusalem, offering as an example the Amarna letters, which are dated to the 14th century BCE and refer to Jerusalem as Urasalimmu. He states that "There is no evidence of Jebus and the Jebusites outside of the Old Testament. Some scholars reckon Jebus to be a different place from Jerusalem; other scholars prefer to see the name of Jebus as a kind of pseudo-ethnic name without any historical background".^[69]

The capture of Jebus is mentioned in 2 Samuel 5 and 1 Chronicles 11 with similar wordings:

And

city of David.

— 1 Chronicles 11:4–5

According to

Absalom initiated the attack with his forces. He chose Amasa, one of Joab's kinsmen, as general, and marched out of Jerusalem into the land of Gilead. When David entered Mahanaim with his forces, as a result of his fame many warriors flocked to his aid, and passed before him to the battle,^[82] as he stood at the gate of the city. David divided the army into three parts—one was to be led by Joab; one by Abishai; and the third by Ittai, the trusted friend and commander from Gath. David then declared that he would head the army himself, but his soldiers would not allow David to risk his life. They asked him to remain in the city. When all was ready, David gave to the three Generals this parting injunction, "Deal gently, for my sake, with the young man, with Absalom." The two armies met in a forest of Ephraim. It was a great and terrible battle. The rebel forces were unable to maneuver because the thickness of trees, and their numbers were reduced by the underbrush of the forest.^[83] The forces of Absalom were thus routed by the royal forces of David. Absalom himself fled. As he was riding through the woods on his mule, he was caught by the long locks of his hair under the spreading branches of a large tree. Unable to free himself, he remained suspended, his mule had escaped. One of David's servants brought this intelligence to General Joab, who gave the order that Absalom be put to death and the royal troops disengaged immediately thereafter.

Scholarly opinion is divided as to the historicity of the events in the Books of Samuel. Most scholars believe that the Books of Samuel contain a large amount of historical information, while there are some dissenters who view them as entirely fictional.^[84]

Battles of Baal-perazim and the Valley of Rephaim

According to 2 Samuel 5:20, and 1 Chronicles 14:11, Ba'al-Perazim was the scene of a victory gained by David over the Philistines. It may be the same as a Mount Perazim referenced in Isaiah 28:21. which suggests a mountain with a high ground position for David to attack. Alternatively, since David says "Yahweh burst-through" (פָּרַץ יְהוָה) "like bursting of waters" (פֶרֶץ מָיִם) it may be a reference to waters.

Israel and Judah period

The Israel and Judah period in the Hebrew Bible stretches from the alleged split of the united monarchy into Israel and Judah (c. 930 BCE), until the fall of Judah due to the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. The military and religious conflict between the

Jeroboam's Revolt (

The great Battle of Mount Zemaraim was reported in the Bible to have been fought in Mount Zemaraim, when the army of the Kingdom of Israel led by the king Jeroboam I encountered the army of the Kingdom of Judah led by the king Abijah I.^[95] About 500,000 Israelites were said to have lain dead after this single engagement, though most modern commentators consider the numbers to be either wildly exaggerated or symbolic, and some have even questioned its fundamental historicity.^[96] A chronology proposed by Edwin Thiele suggests the battle would have taken place in around 913 BC.

The friction began when the late king

Before the battle, Abijah addressed the armies of Israel, urging them to submit and to let the Kingdom of Israel be whole again. As written in the biblical narrative (2 Chronicles 13:4-12), Abijah then rallied his own troops with an address to all the people of Israel:

“Listen to me, Jeroboam and all Israel: 5 “Do you not know that the LORD God of Israel gave the rule over Israel forever to David and his sons by a covenant of salt? 6 “Yet Jeroboam the son of Nebat, the servant of Solomon the son of David, rose up and rebelled against his master, 7 and worthless men gathered about him, scoundrels, who proved too strong for Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, when he was young and timid and could not hold his own against them. 8 “So now you intend to resist the kingdom of the LORD through the sons of David, being a great multitude and having with you the golden calves which Jeroboam made for gods for you. 9 “Have you not driven out the priests of the LORD, the sons of Aaron and the Levites, and made for yourselves priests like the peoples of other lands? Whoever comes to consecrate himself with a young bull and seven rams, even he may become a priest of what are no gods. 10 “But as for us, the LORD is our God, and we have not forsaken Him; and the sons of Aaron are ministering to the LORD as priests, and the Levites attend to their work. 11 “Every morning and evening they burn to the LORD burnt offerings and fragrant incense, and the showbread is set on the clean table, and the golden lampstand with its lamps is ready to light every evening; for we keep the charge of the LORD our God, but you have forsaken Him. 12 “Now behold, God is with us at our head and His priests with the signal trumpets to sound the alarm against you. O sons of Israel, do not fight against the LORD God of your fathers, for you will not succeed.”

Abijah's plea to Jeroboam was not heeded. Jeroboam had set up an ambush to come from the rear of Abijah's army, so that the latter's army would be fighting on his army's front and rear,^[103] executing a giant pincer movement. All of the soldiers of Judah pleaded to God for help, and then the priests blew the trumpets.^[104] Abijah was quick in countering this move made by Jeroboam; he ordered his warriors to fight bravely and countered the pincer movement executed by Jeroboam to his warriors, crushing the latter's huge army. Abijah and the warriors of Judah who were under his command had won the day, killing 500,000 Israelite warriors in the process.^[105] The rest of the Israelite army fled from the battlefield heading back north, and the forces of Judah then staged a relentless pursuit against them, taking the cities of Bethel, Jeshanah and Ephron during the ensuing pursuit.^[106] The factor for Judah's success in the battle is mainly attributed to Abijah and his troops' devotion to their God.^[107]

Jeroboam was crippled by this severe defeat to Abijah and thus posed little threat to the Kingdom of Judah for the rest of his reign;^[108] however, despite being victorious, Abijah also failed to reunify Israel and Judah. To conclude, despite the battle being decisive for both sides, this only deepened their division of each other, and these two kingdoms would be engaged in severe border wars for almost two centuries until the Kingdom of Israel's conquest and destruction by Assyria in 720 BC.

Shishak's sack of Jerusalem

According to

The Old Testament describes this battle in 2 Chronicles 14:9–15 as having occurred during the dates of 911–870 BCE, in the reign of King

The biblical Battle of Megiddo is recorded as having taken place in 609 BC when Pharaoh Necho II of Egypt led his army to Carchemish (northern Syria) to join with his allies, the fading Neo-Assyrian Empire, against the surging Neo-Babylonian Empire. This required passing through territory controlled by the Kingdom of Judah. The Judaean king Josiah refused to let the Egyptians pass.^[115] The Judaean forces battled the Egyptians at Megiddo, resulting in Josiah's death and his kingdom becoming a vassal state of Egypt. The battle is recorded in the Hebrew Bible, the Greek 1 Esdras, and the writings of Josephus. While Necho II gained control of the Kingdom of Judah, the combined Assyrian-Egyptian forces lost to the Babylonians at the Fall of Harran, after which Assyria largely ceased to exist as an independent state.

The basic story is told in 2 Kings 23:29–30 (written c. 550 BC). The Hebrew text here has been misunderstood and translated as Necho going 'against' Assyria. Cline 2000:92-93 notes that most modern translations try to improve this passage by taking into account what we now know from other historical sources, namely that Egypt and Assyria were then allies. The original text also does not mention a 'battle', yet some modern versions add the word 'battle' to the text.

In his days Pharaoh Neco king of Egypt went up to the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates. King Josiah went to meet him; and Pharaoh Neco slew him at Megiddo, when he saw him. And his servants carried him dead in a chariot from Megiddo, and brought him to Jerusalem, and buried him in his own tomb.

There is a longer account recorded later in 2 Chronicles 35:20–25 (written c. 350–300 BC).^[116]

After all this, when Josiah had set the temple in order, Neco king of Egypt came up to make war at Carchemish on the Euphrates, and Josiah went out to engage him. But Neco sent messengers to him, saying, "What have we to do with each other, O King of Judah? I am not coming against you today but against the house with which I am at war, and God has ordered me to hurry. Stop for your own sake from interfering with God who is with me, so that He will not destroy you." However, Josiah would not turn away from him, but disguised himself in order to make war with him; nor did he listen to the words of Neco from the mouth of God, but came to make war on the plain of Megiddo. The archers shot King Josiah, and the king said to his servants, "Take me away, for I am badly wounded." So his servants took him out of the chariot and carried him in the second chariot which he had, and brought him to Jerusalem where he died and was buried in the tombs of his fathers.

War in the prophetic books

The prophetic books of the Hebrew Bible contain the books of Isaiah through Malachi. Some of the battles mentioned or described in the prophetic books also feature in the historical books, and so there is some overlap in content, although the information provided may differ significantly.

Fall of Nineveh (612 BCE)

The Book of Nahum is dedicated to the Fall of Nineveh, which happened in or around 612 BCE. The story was supposedly written down after "the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite".^[117] Chapter 1 narrates in the first and third person how the Israelite deity Yahweh tells the Assyrians that he will punish them by destroying their capital city of Nineveh, and chapters 2 and 3 go on to narrate in detail how he will do so. Scholar Susanne Scholz (2021) noted that Nahum 3 mirrors other Hebrew prophetic poems in which a city (with Nineveh here being a pars pro toto representative of the Neo-Assyrian Empire) destroyed by a foreign enemy is portrayed as a sexually promiscuous woman who receives sexual violence and the resulting shame as a just punishment for her sins. Even though the Israelite god Yahweh had no previous relationship with Nineveh that the latter could be 'unfaithful' to, it is presented as revenge for the Assyrian conquest of the northern Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and the Assyrian captivity in the 730s BCE.^[118]

Battle of Carchemish (605 BCE)

This battle was fought about 605 BC

The Egyptians met the full might of the Babylonian and Median army led by Nebuchadnezzar II at Carchemish, where the combined Egyptian and Assyrian forces were destroyed. Assyria ceased to exist as an independent power, and Egypt retreated and was no longer a significant force in the Ancient Near East. Babylonia reached its economic peak after 605 BC.^[124]

Siege of Jerusalem (597 BCE)

To avoid the destruction of Jerusalem, King

Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with these rebellions. According to the Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle,^[127] he laid siege to Jerusalem, which eventually fell in 597 BC. The Chronicle states:

In the seventh year [of Nebuchadnezzar, 598 BC] in the month Chislev [November/December] the king of Babylon assembled his army, and after he had invaded the land of Hatti (Syria/Palestine) he laid siege to the city of Judah. On the second day of the month of Adar [16 March] he conquered the city and took the king [Jeconiah] prisoner. He installed in his place a king [Zedekiah] of his own choice, and after he had received rich tribute, he sent forth to Babylon.^[128]

Jehoiakim died during the siege, possibly on December 10, 598 BC,^[129] or during the months of Kislev,^[130] or Tevet.^[131] Nebuchadnezzar pillaged the city and its Temple, and the new king Jeconiah, who was either 8 or 18, and his court and other prominent citizens and craftsmen, were deported to Babylon.^[132] The deportation occurred prior to Nisan of 597 BC, and dates in the Book of Ezekiel are counted from that event.^[133]

Nebuchadnezzar installed Jeconiah's uncle, Zedekiah as puppet-king of Judah, and Jeconiah was compelled to remain in Babylon.^[134] The start of Zedekiah's reign has been variously dated within a few weeks before,^[135] or after ^[136][137] the start of Nisan 597 BC.

Siege of Jerusalem (587 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar began a siege of Jerusalem in January 589 BC.^[138][139] Many Jews fled to surrounding Moab, Ammon, Edom and other countries to seek refuge.^[140] The Bible describes the city as enduring horrible deprivation during the siege (2 Kings 25:3; Lamentations 4:4, 5, 9). The city fell after a siege, which lasted either eighteen or thirty months.^[139] In the eleventh year of Zedekiah's reign (2 Kings 25:2; Jeremiah 39:2), Nebuchadnezzar broke through Jerusalem's walls, conquering the city. Zedekiah and his followers attempted to escape but were captured on the plains of Jericho and taken to Riblah. There, after seeing his sons killed, Zedekiah was blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (2 Kings 25:1–7; 2 Chronicles 36:12; Jeremiah 32:4–5; 34:2–3; 39:1–7; 52:4–11), where he remained a prisoner until his death.

After the fall of Jerusalem, the Babylonian general Nebuzaraddan was sent to complete its destruction. Jerusalem was plundered, and Solomon's Temple was destroyed. Most of the elite were taken into captivity in Babylon. The city was razed to the ground. Only a few people were permitted to remain to tend to the land (Jeremiah 52:16). The Jew Gedaliah was made governor of the remnant of Judah, the Yehud Province, with a Chaldean guard stationed at Mizpah (2 Kings 25:22–24; Jeremiah 40:6–8). The Bible reports that, on hearing this news, Jews who had fled to Moab, Ammon, Edom, and in other countries returned to Judah (Jeremiah 40:11–12). Gedaliah was assassinated by Ishmael son of Nethaniah two months later, and the population that had remained and those who had returned then fled to Egypt for safety (2 Kings 25:25–26, Jeremiah 43:5–7). In Egypt, they settled in Migdol (it is uncertain where the Bible is referring to here, probably somewhere in the Nile Delta), Tahpanhes, Memphis (called Noph), and Pathros in the vicinity of Thebes (Jeremiah 44:1).

List of Hebrew Bible battles

See also

• Ancient warfare
• The Bible and violence
• Christianity and violence
• Judaism and violence
• Historicity of the Bible
• List of Hebrew Bible events

Notes

References