Warsaw Pact

Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance
Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact in 1990
Abbreviation	TFCMA, WP
Successor	Collective Security Treaty Organization
Founded	14 May 1955 (1955-05-14)
Founded at	Warsaw, Poland
Dissolved	1 July 1991 (1991-07-01)
Headquarters	Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
Membership	Albania[a]  Bulgaria  Czechoslovakia  East Germany[b]  Hungary  Poland   Romania[c]  Soviet Union
Supreme commander	Ivan Konev (first) Pyotr Lushev (last)
Chief of combined staff	Aleksei Antonov (first) Vladimir Lobov (last)
Affiliations	Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

The Warsaw Pact (WP),^[d] formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA),^[e] was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant defensive alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization^[5] (WTO).^[f] The Warsaw Pact was the military and economic complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the regional economic organization for the Eastern Bloc states of Central and Eastern Europe.^{[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]}

Dominated by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to the

East Germany withdrew from the pact following German reunification in 1990. On 25 February 1991, at a meeting in Hungary, the pact was declared at an end by the defense and foreign ministers of the six remaining member states. The USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. In the following 20 years, the Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and the Czech Republic and Slovakia as separate countries), as did the Baltic states.

History

Beginnings

Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, the Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and Poland.

The USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, had suggested in 1954 that it join NATO, but this was rejected by the US.[27]^[28][29]

The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the

Consequently, Molotov, fearing that the EDC would be directed in the future against the USSR and "seeking to prevent the formation of groups of European States directed against the other European States",[38] made a proposal for a General European Treaty on Collective Security in Europe "open to all European States without regard to their social systems",^[38] which would have included the unified Germany (thus rendering the EDC obsolete). But Eden, Dulles, and Bidault opposed the proposal.^[39]

One month later, the proposed European Treaty was rejected not only by supporters of the EDC, but also by Western opponents of the European Defence Community (like French

Again, all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, and French governments shortly after.^[29][42] Emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, a fierce supporter of NATO expansion. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954^[43] saying that "the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force".^[44]

In April 1954, Adenauer made his first visit to the United States, meeting Nixon, Eisenhower, and Dulles. Ratification of the EDC was delayed but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that the EDC would have to become a part of NATO.^[45]

Memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too.^[8][46] On 30 August 1954, the French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure^[47] and blocking a major objective of US policy towards Europe: to associate West Germany militarily with the West.^[48] The US Department of State started to elaborate alternatives: West Germany would be invited to join NATO or, in the case of French obstructionism, strategies to circumvent a French veto would be implemented in order to obtain German rearmament outside NATO.^[49]

On 23 October 1954, the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany to the North Atlantic Pact was finally decided. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time.^[50] In November 1954, the USSR requested a new European Security Treaty,^[51] in order to make a final attempt to not have a remilitarized West Germany potentially opposed to the Soviet Union, with no success.

On 14 May 1955, the USSR and seven other Eastern European countries "reaffirming their desire for the establishment of a system of European collective security based on the participation of all European states irrespective of their social and political systems"^[52] established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO,^[7][9] declaring that: "a remilitarized Western Germany and the integration of the latter in the North-Atlantic bloc [...] increase the danger of another war and constitutes a threat to the national security of the peaceable states; [...] in these circumstances the peaceable European states must take the necessary measures to safeguard their security".^[52]

One of the founding members, East Germany, was allowed to re-arm by the Soviet Union and the National People's Army was established as the armed forces of the country to counter the rearmament of West Germany.^[53]

The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted

The founding signatories of the Pact consisted of the following communist governments:

• People's Socialist Republic of Albania (withheld support in 1961 because of the Albanian–Soviet split, but formally withdrew on 13 September 1968)
• People's Republic of Bulgaria^[59]
• Czechoslovak Socialist Republic^[59]
•  East Germany (German Democratic Republic; officially withdrew on 24 September 1990 in preparation for German reunification, with Soviet consent and a "remarkable yet hardly noticed" ceremony, ceasing to exist altogether at midnight on 3 October)^{[60][61][62][63][64]}
• Hungarian People's Republic (temporarily withdrew from 1–4 November 1956 during the Hungarian Revolution)^[59]
• Polish People's Republic^[59]
• freed itself from its Soviet satellite status by the early 1960s)^[1][2]
•  Soviet Union^[59]

Observers

 Mongolia: In July 1963, the Mongolian People's Republic asked to join the Warsaw Pact under Article 9 of the treaty.^[65] Due to the emerging Sino-Soviet split, Mongolia remained in an observer status.^[65] In what was the first instance of a Soviet initiative being blocked by a non-Soviet member of the Warsaw Pact, Romania blocked Mongolia's accession to the Warsaw Pact.^[66][67] The Soviet government agreed to station troops in Mongolia in 1966.^[68]

At first,

For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage. These included the Korean War, Vietnam War, Bay of Pigs invasion, Dirty War, Cambodian–Vietnamese War, and others.^[72][73]

In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of the withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government.^[74] Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the death of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens.^[75]

The multi-national Communist armed forces' sole joint action was the

In 1989, popular civil and political public discontent

As the last acts of the Cold War were playing out, several Warsaw Pact states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary) participated in the US-led coalition effort to liberate Kuwait in the Gulf War.

On 25 February 1991, the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defence and foreign ministers from remaining Pact countries meeting in Hungary.^[83] On 1 July 1991, in Prague, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel^[84] formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the USSR.^[84][85] The USSR disestablished itself in December 1991.

Structure

The Warsaw Treaty's organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland.

Marshal of the Soviet Union Ivan Konev (left) served as the first Supreme Commander of the Pact (1955–1960) while Army General Aleksei Antonov served as the first Chief of Combined Staff of the Pact (1955–1962).

Although an apparently similar

Despite the American hegemony (mainly military and economic) over NATO, all decisions of the North Atlantic Alliance required unanimous consensus in the North Atlantic Council and the entry of countries into the alliance was not subject to domination but rather a natural democratic process.^[87] In the Warsaw Pact, decisions were ultimately taken by the Soviet Union alone; the countries of the Warsaw Pact were not equally able to negotiate their entry in the Pact nor the decisions taken.^[87]

Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Pact's primary function was to safeguard the

Romania and, until 1968, Albania – were exceptions. Together with Yugoslavia, which broke with the Soviet Union before the Warsaw Pact was created, these three countries completely rejected the Soviet doctrine formulated for the Pact. Albania officially left the organization in 1968, in protest of its invasion of Czechoslovakia. Romania had its own reasons for remaining a formal member of the Warsaw Pact, such as Nicolae Ceaușescu's interest of preserving the threat of a Pact invasion so he could sell himself as a nationalist, as well as privileged access to NATO counterparts and a seat at various European forums which otherwise he would not have had (for instance, Romania and the Soviet-led remainder of the Warsaw Pact formed two distinct groups in the elaboration of the Helsinki Final Act).^[90] When Andrei Grechko assumed command of the Warsaw Pact, both Romania and Albania had for all practical purposes defected from the Pact. In the early 1960s, Grechko initiated programs meant to preempt Romanian doctrinal heresies from spreading to other Pact members. Romania's doctrine of territorial defense threatened the Pact's unity and cohesion. No other country succeeded in escaping from the Warsaw Pact like Romania and Albania did. For example, the mainstays of Romania's tank forces were locally developed models. Soviet troops were deployed to Romania for the last time in 1963, as part of a Warsaw Pact exercise. After 1964, the Soviet Army was barred from returning to Romania, as the country refused to take part in joint Pact exercises.^[91]

Even before the advent of

Romania requested and obtained the complete withdrawal of the Soviet Army from its territory in 1958. The Romanian campaign for independence culminated on 22 April 1964 when the Romanian Communist Party issued a declaration proclaiming that: "Every Marxist–Leninist Party has a sovereign right...to elaborate, choose or change the forms and methods of socialist construction." and "There exists no "parent" party and "offspring" party, no "superior" and "subordinated" parties, but only the large family of communist and workers' parties having equal rights." and also "there are not and there can be no unique patterns and recipes". This amounted to a declaration of political and ideological independence from Moscow.[95]^[96][97][98]

Following Albania's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, Romania remained the only Pact member with an independent military doctrine which denied the Soviet Union use of its armed forces and avoided absolute dependence on Soviet sources of military equipment.^[100] Romania was the only non-Soviet Warsaw Pact member which was not obliged to militarily defend the Soviet Union in case of an armed attack.^[101] Bulgaria and Romania were the only Warsaw Pact members that did not have Soviet troops stationed on their soil.^[102] In December 1964, Romania became the only Warsaw Pact member (save Albania, which would leave the Pact altogether within 4 years) from which all Soviet advisors were withdrawn, including those in the intelligence and security services.^[103] Not only did Romania not participate in joint operations with the KGB, but it also set up "departments specialized in anti-KGB counterespionage".^[104]

Romania was neutral in the Sino-Soviet split.^{[105][106][107]} Its neutrality in the Sino-Soviet dispute along with being the small Communist country with the most influence in global affairs enabled Romania to be recognized by the world as the "third force" of the Communist world. Romania's independence – achieved in the early 1960s through its freeing from its Soviet satellite status – was tolerated by Moscow because Romania was not bordering the Iron Curtain – being surrounded by socialist states – and because its ruling party was not going to abandon communism.^{[2][108][109]}

Although certain historians such as Robert King and Dennis Deletant argue against the usage of the term "independent" to describe Romania's relations with the Soviet Union, favoring "autonomy" instead on account of the country's continued membership within both the Comecon and the Warsaw Pact along with its commitment to socialism, this approach fails to explain why in July 1963 Romania blocked Mongolia's accession to the Warsaw Pact, why in November 1963 Romania voted in favor of a UN resolution to establish a nuclear-free zone in Latin America when the other Soviet-aligned countries abstained, or why in 1964 Romania opposed the Soviet-proposed "strong collective riposte" against China (and these are examples solely from the 1963–1964 period).^[110] Soviet disinformation tried to convince the West that Ceaușescu's empowerment was a dissimulation in connivance with Moscow.^[111] To an extent this worked, as some historians came to see the hand of Moscow behind every Romanian initiative. For instance, when Romania became the only Eastern European country to maintain diplomatic relations with Israel, some historians have speculated that this was at Moscow's whim. However, this theory fails upon closer inspection.^[112] Even during the Cold War, some thought that Romanian actions were done at the behest of the Soviets, but Soviet anger at said actions was "persuasively genuine". In truth, the Soviets were not beyond publicly aligning themselves with the West against the Romanians at times.^[113]

Strategy

The strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the

Notable military exercises

External videos
Czechoslovak Military Parade "Shield-84" – Vojenská přehlídka ČSLA "Štít-84

• "Szczecin" (Poland, 1962)
• "Vltava" (Czechoslovakia, 1966)
• Operation "Rhodope" (Bulgaria, 1967)
• "Oder-Neisse" (East Germany, 1969)
• Przyjaźń 84 (Poland, 1984)
• Shield 84 (Czechoslovakia, 1984)^[115]

NATO and Warsaw Pact: comparison of the two forces

NATO and Warsaw Pact forces in Europe

Post–Warsaw Pact

On 12 March 1999, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland joined NATO; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Croatia and Albania joined on 1 April 2009.^[117][118]

The USSR's successor

In November 2005, the Polish government opened its Warsaw Treaty archives to the Institute of National Remembrance, which published some 1,300 declassified documents in January 2006, yet the Polish government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their military declassification. Eventually, 30 of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained secret and unpublished. Among the documents published was the Warsaw Treaty's nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine – a short, swift invasion and capture of Austria, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands east of the Rhine, using nuclear weapons after a supposed NATO first strike.^[119][120]

See also

• Eastern Bloc
• Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 – treaty that defined Finland's level of neutrality towards Soviet Union
  • Finlandization – the USSR's influence on Finland following the treaty
• Russosphere
• Soviet Empire
• Sovietization
• Treaty of friendship – any treaty establishing close ties between countries

Explanatory notes

References

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Works cited

• Adenauer, Konrad (1966a). Memorie 1945–1953 (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013.
• Molotov, Vyacheslav (1954a). La conferenza di Berlino (in Italian). Ed. di cultura sociale.
• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.

Further reading

• Faringdon, Hugh. Confrontation: The Strategic Geography of NATO and the Warsaw Pact. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.
• S2CID 159502812
  .
• Kramer, Mark N. "Civil-military relations in the Warsaw Pact: The East European component".
  JSTOR 2619779
  .
• Lewis, William Julian (1982). The Warsaw Pact: Arms, Doctrine, and Strategy. Cambridge, Mass.: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis.
  ISBN 978-0-07-031746-8. This book presents an overview of all the Warsaw Pact armed forces as well as a section on Soviet strategy, a model land campaign which the Soviet Union could have conducted against NATO
  .. and a full-color section on the uniforms, nations badges and rank-insignia of the Warsaw Pact. (Later CWIHP, Heuser, and CIA FOIA documents present a much better picture of Soviet plans.)
• Mackintosh, Malcolm. The Evolution of the Warsaw Pact (International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1969)
• ISBN 978-963-7326-07-3
  .
• McAdams, A. James. East Germany and Détente. Cambridge University Press, 1985.
• McAdams, A. James. Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification. Princeton University Press, 1992 and 1993.

Other languages

• ISBN 978-3-86153-362-7
  .
• ISBN 978-88-7180-662-4
  .
  • Original edition: Wahl, Alfred (2006). La seconde histoire du nazisme dans l'Allemagne fédérale depuis 1945 (in French). Paris:
    ISBN 2-200-26844-0
    .

Memoirs

• Henry Regnery Company
  .
• Molotov, Vyacheslav (1954b). Statements at Berlin Conference of Foreign Ministers of U.S.S.R., France, Great Britain and U.S.A., January 25 – February 18, 1954. Foreign Languages Publishing House.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Warsaw Pact.

• "What was the Warsaw Pact?". North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
• The Woodrow Wilson Center Cold War International History Project's Warsaw Pact Document Collection
• Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security
• Library of Congress / Federal Research Division / Country Studies / Area Handbook Series / Soviet Union / Appendix C: The Warsaw Pact (1989)
• Map of Russia and the Warsaw Pact (omniatlas.com)
• Soviet Nuclear Weapons in Hungary 1961–1991
• The Warsaw Pact, 1955–1968 by Hugh Collins Embry. Contain extensive documentation of the Pact's first 13 years.