Water resources management in Syria
Water resources management in Syria is confronted with numerous challenges. First, all of the country's major rivers are shared with neighboring countries, and Syria depends to a large extent on the inflow of water from
Water is regulated by the Ministry of Water Resources.
Water resources base
Surface water
The most important rivers of Syria are the
Among Syria's smaller rivers is the
International agreements on transboundary rivers
While Syria has signed written agreements with its neighbors on transboundary rivers, none of these agreements is an international treaty that would have to be ratified by the Parliaments of the respective countries. The agreements are rather non-binding memorandums of understanding.[2]
Euphrates River. In 1989 Iraq and Syria signed a water-sharing agreement under which a maximum of 42% (210 m³/s) of the surface water inflow through the Euphrates granted by Turkey unilaterally to the downstream riparians (500 m³/s) was considered as Syria's share.[3] There is no final agreement regarding the Syrian water rights on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. However, since 2005 a group of scholars and retired officials from Syria, Iraq and Turkey initiated Track II diplomacy under the Euphrates-Tigris Initiative for Cooperation. It aims to promote cooperation among the three countries, including through a joint data inventory.[2] In March 2008 the three riparian countries formed a joint "water institute" based in Turkey that will "work toward the solution of water-related problems among the three".[4]
Orontes River. There is an agreement between Lebanon and Syria over the Orontes signed in 1994, which stipulates that Lebanon receives 80 million cubic meters of water per year "if the river flow inside Lebanon is 400 million cubic meters per year or more". This means that the risk of drought is borne by Lebanon. No new wells were allowed to be drilled in the Lebanese portion of the Orontes basin since the agreement had been signed.[2][5]
There is apparently no such agreement over the Orontes between Syria and Turkey. However, in March 2008 Syria and Turkey reportedly agreed to jointly build a dam on the river, which suggests that some kind of agreement has been made.[4]
Yarmouk River. In 1987 Syria and Jordan signed an agreement about the sharing of the river's water and have subsequently built a dam, the Unity Dam, on the border between the two countries.
Groundwater
Historical groundwater recharge has been estimated at 4 km3/year, out of which 2 km3/year was estimated to discharge through springs into rivers (average 1977–2001).
Overall estimates
Estimates of water resources in Syria vary greatly, which is due to different assumptions about inflows from and outflows to other countries, different methodologies to account for overlaps between surface water and groundwater, and poor data. For example, one report estimates "internal" renewable water resources at 7.1 km3/year (long-term average 1977–2001), taking into account overlaps between data between surface water and groundwater.
Water use
Total annual water withdrawal was estimated at 19.4 km3/year in 2008–2009, including 2.4 km3/year taken by depleting groundwater and surface water reservoirs.[10] It was estimated at 16.7 km3/year in 2003, 88% of which was for agricultural purposes.[8]
Overexploitation of groundwater
In some basins, such as that of the Barada around Damascus, total water use exceeds availability of renewable water resources, resulting in
Water pollution
According to the Syrian National Environmental Action Plan of 2003, surface and groundwater are contaminated in many areas with domestic and industrial wastewater. For example, in the Barada River concentrations of
On the Orontes River analyses of water samples for ammonia, suspended solids and BOD indicated that concentrations exceeded the allowable limits, particularly in the lower part of the river. In the upper part, water quality is acceptable. On the Quweiq River flowing through Aleppo concentrations of BOD, ammonia and heavy metals exceeded allowable limits. In the coastal region wells used for drinking purposes are contaminated with high concentrations of nitrates and ammonia because of sewage discharge and use of fertilizers. Water salinity is also high in some wells because of seawater intrusion into the fresh groundwater aquifers.[7]
Dams
There are 165 dams in Syria with a total storage capacity of 19.6 km3.
Legal and institutional framework
A comprehensive regulatory framework for integrated water resources management does not exist in Syria. Over 140 laws dealing with water have been passed since 1924. Prohibitions on well drilling and groundwater pollution have been passed, but there are no clear mechanisms for their enforcement.[8] The Syrian water sector is both highly centralized and fragmented between sector institutions that have overlapping functions and responsibilities. A Council of General Commission for Water Resource Management is in charge of integrating water policies between various Ministries.[8] According to another source there is a Higher Water Committee, which is presided by the Deputy Prime Minister for service affairs.[7] According to a report on Syria's water resources, "one of the consequences of the fragmentation and lack of coordination within the water sector is that key water resource data are not exchanged between the different institutions, which in turn hampers effective policy making."[12]
Ministries with responsibilities related to water resources management include:
- The Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) is a key actor in water resource management. It is responsible for water resources management and for the provision of all irrigation water in the country, including sewage effluent. MOI is also in charge of controlling and monitoring water quality through the Water Safety Committee. Through its 14 water and sanitation directorates (Establishments) it is also in charge of providing water supply and sanitation services.
- The Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform(MAAR) is responsible for the rational use of water for agricultural purposes, for minimizing water consumption and encouraging the use of modern irrigation techniques.
- The Ministry of Local Administration and Environment(MLAE) is responsible for dealing with all main environmental issues. In addition, it has the task to plan and implement all governmental activities at regional level. MLAE is responsible for the protection of the environment by issuing the required standards and monitoring the quality of water for all uses.
Water resources assessment and planning
From 2002 to 2004, the Ministry of Irrigation, with the support of Dutch development cooperation, prepared an integrated water resources management plan for the coastal basins. The project included detailed water resources assessment studies, the analysis and selection of strategies and an action plan developed in consultation with various government stakeholders.
Syria plans to irrigate 25,000ha in the Northeast by pumping water from the Tigris.[2]
Water shortages during the Syrian Civil War
During the Wadi Barada offensive, there were periods of water shortages in Damascus due to rebels' control of Ain al-Fijah in late 2016,[15] until it was controlled by the Syrian army in early 2017.[16][17]
In 2020, the Turkish authorities started to cut water supplies from the Euphrates, which caused huge water shortages in Al-Hasakah Governorate.[18] Those schemes might have been used to affect the Kurdish-controlled areas in north Syria.[19][20]
See also
- List of rivers in Syria
- Water resources management in Greater Damascus
- Water supply and sanitation in Syria
References
- ^ , accessed on October 31, 2009
- ^ a b c d Syria Today:Parting the Waters, by John Dagge, January 2010, accessed on January 18, 2010
- ^ Syria Today:Syrian-Turkish Hydrodiplomacy, by Marwa Daoudy, January 2010, accessed on January 18, 2010
- ^ a b Today's Zaman:Turkey, Iraq, Syria to initiate water talks, 12 March 2000, accessed on October 31, 2009
- ^ Oregon State University: Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database, International Freshwater Treaties Database: Bilateral agreement, Act No. 15 concerning the division of the water of Al-Asi River (Orontes) between the Syrian Arab Republic and the Lebanese Republic, September 20, 1994, retrieved on February 5, 2010
- ^ World Resources Institute:Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems-- Syrian Arab Republic,[dead link] 2003, based on FAO Aquastat 2002
- ^ a b c d The Ministry of State for
Environmental Affairs/United Nations Development Program:Strategy and National Environmental Action Plan for Syria, 2003, accessed on October 31, 2009
- ^ , 2008, accessed on October 31, 2009
- ^ Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (Germany) & Ministry of Irrigation (Syria). Initial Assessment Study of Water Sector Management in the Syrian Arab Republic, Final Report. Damascus, September 2004
- ^ Syria Today:Q&A: Nader al-Bunni, Syrian Minister of Irrigation, by Francesca de Châtel, January 2010, accessed on January 18, 2010
- ^ Syria Today:When Every Drop Counts, by Francesca de Châtel, January 2010, accessed on January 18, 2010
- ^ a b Syria Today:Mining the Deep, by Francesca de Châtel, January 2010, accessed on January 18, 2010
- ^ DHV:Coastal Water Resources Management Project 2002-2004, presentation at the seminar on Dutch-Syrian water cooperation, November 22, 2004
- ^ Water Resources Information Center, Ministry of Irrigation, Syria, WRIC Chief Advisor Noriyuki Mori, JICA, presentation at the seminar on Dutch-Syrian water cooperation, November 22, 2004
- ^ "Damascus water supply cut after rebels pollute it: authority". Reuters. 23 December 2016.
- ^ "Update on water cuts in Syria". UNICEF. 6 January 2017.
- ^ "Syria regains Damascus water supply plant". BBC. 28 January 2017.
- ^ "2020: The year of the worst water shortage in Hassakeh, Syria". icrc.org. 2020.
- ^ "The role of water in the Syrian and Iraqi Civil Wars". clingendael.org. 5 March 2020.
- ^ "Syria: Are water supplies being weaponized by Turkey?". DW. 24 January 2021.
Further reading
- Elie Elhadj:Dry Aquifers In Arab Countries And The Looming Food Crisis, 2008
External links
- Focus topic water:Out of its depths?, Syria Today, January 2010