Water scarcity
Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity namely physical and economic water scarcity.[2]: 560 Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function. Arid areas for example Central Asia, West Asia, and North Africa often experience physical water scarcity.[3] Economic water scarcity on the other hand, is the result of lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.[2]: 560 Much of Sub-Saharan Africa experiences economic water scarcity.[4]: 11
There is enough freshwater available globally and averaged over the year to meet demand. As such, water scarcity is caused by a mismatch between when and where people need water, and when and where it is available.
Water scarcity assessments need to incorporate information on green water (soil moisture), water quality, environmental flow requirements, globalization, and virtual water trade.[6] There is a need for collaboration between hydrological, water quality, aquatic ecosystem science and social science communities in water scarcity assessment.[6] "Water stress" has been used as parameter to measure water scarcity, for example in the context of Sustainable Development Goal 6.[10] Half a billion people live in areas with severe water scarcity throughout the year,[5][6] and around four billion people face severe water scarcity at least one month per year.[5][11] Half of the world's largest cities experience water scarcity.[11] There are 2.3 billion people who reside in nations with water scarcities, which means that each individual receives less than 1700 m3 of water annually. However, 380 billion m3 of municipal wastewater are produced globally each year.[12][13][14]
Reducing water scarcity requires supply and demand side management, cooperation between countries and water conservation (including prevention of water pollution). It also requires expanding sources of usable water (through wastewater reuse or desalination) and virtual water trade.
Definitions
Water scarcity has been defined as the "volumetric abundance, or lack thereof, of freshwater resources" and it is thought to be "human-driven".[15]: 4 This can also be called "physical water scarcity".[4] There are two types of water scarcity: physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity.[2]: 560 Environmental water requirements are sometimes included in water scarcity determinations but the approach to this varies from one organization to another.[15]: 4
Related concepts
There are several definitions of "water scarcity", "water stress", and "water risk" provided in the literature, and therefore a harmonization has been proposed by the CEO Water Mandate in 2014.[15]: 2 In their discussion paper they state that these three terms should not be used interchangeably.[15]: 3
Water stress
Some organizations define "water stress" as a broader concept. Under that definition, it would include aspects of water availability, water quality and the accessibility of water. The latter is related to existing infrastructure and whether customers can afford to pay for the water.[15]: 4 This is termed by others as "economic water scarcity".[4]
FAO defines water stress as the "symptoms of water scarcity or shortage". Such symptoms could be "growing conflict between users, and competition for water, declining standards of reliability and service, harvest failures and food insecurity".[17]: 6 This is measured with a range of Water Stress Indices.
Another definition for water stress is as follows: "Water stress refers to the impact of high water use (either withdrawals or consumption) relative to water availability."[1] Water stress is therefore viewed as a "demand-driven scarcity".
Types
Two types of water scarcity have been defined: physical and economic water scarcity. These terms were first defined in a 2007 study led by the
Physical water scarcity
Physical water scarcity occurs when natural water resources are not enough to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function well. Dry regions often suffer from physical water scarcity. Human influence on climate has led to increased water scarcity in areas where water was previously hard to come by.
Another indicator, called ecological water scarcity has been proposed that considers water quantity, water quality, and environmental flow requirements.[19]
Water is physically scarce in densely populated arid areas (for example Central and West Asia, and North Africa), with projected availabilities of less than 1000 cubic meters per capita per year.[3] A study in 2007 found that more than 1.2 billion people live in areas of physical water scarcity.[20] This water scarcity relates to water available for food production, rather than for drinking water which is a much smaller amount.[3][21]
Some academics favour expanding the two types of water scarcity (i.e. the physical and economic) to a third type which would be called ecological water scarcity.[19] This third type would focus on the water demand of ecosystems. It would refer to the minimum quantity and quality of water discharge that are required to maintain sustainable and functional ecosystems. However, other publications state that this aspect is simply part of the definition of physical water scarcity.[17][4]
Economic water scarcity
Economic water scarcity is caused by a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources, or insufficient human capacity to meet the demand for water.
According to the United Nations Development Programme, economic water scarcity is the most common cause of water scarcity. This is because most countries or regions have enough water to meet household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs, but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner.[23] Around a fifth of the world's population currently live in regions affected by physical water scarcity.[23]
A quarter of the world's population is affected by economic water scarcity. Much of Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by economic water scarcity.
Although much emphasis is put on improving water sources for drinking and domestic purposes, we know that much more water is used for other uses such as bathing, laundry, livestock and cleaning than for drinking and cooking alone.[25] This observation suggests that putting too much emphasis on drinking water needs, addresses a minor part of the problem and therefore limits the range of solutions available.[25]
Related concepts
Water security
Water risk
Assessments and indicators
Simple indicators
Indicators include: the water use to availability ratio (or criticality ratio), physical and economic water scarcity—The IWMI Indicator, water poverty index.[6]
"Water stress" has been used as a criterion to measure water scarcity, for example in the context of
Indicators are used to measure the extent of the water scarcity.[37] One way to measure water scarcity is to calculate the amount of annual water resources available per person. For example, according to the "Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator" (developed by Malin Falkenmark), a country or region is said to experience "water stress" when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cubic meters per person per year.[38] At levels between 1,700 and 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, periodic or limited water shortages can be expected. When water supplies drop below 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, the country faces "water scarcity". However, the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator does not help to explain the true nature of water scarcity.[3]
Renewable freshwater resources
More sophisticated indicators
Water scarcity assessments need to incorporate information on green water (soil moisture), water quality, environmental flow requirements, globalization, and virtual water trade.[6] Since the beginning of the 2000s, water scarcity assessments have applied more complex models which are supported with spatial analysis tools. They include: Green-blue water scarcity, water footprint-based water scarcity assessment, cumulative abstraction to demand ratio—considering temporal variations, LCA-based water stress indicators (life cycle assessments), integrated water quantity–quality environment flow in the water scarcity assessment.[6] Since the early 2010s assessments have combined both quantity- and quality-induced water scarcity.[40]
Another indicator, called ecological water scarcity has been proposed that considers water quantity, water quality, and environmental flow requirements.[19] For example, results from a modelling study in 2022 show that northern China suffered more severe ecological water scarcity than southern China. The main driving factor of ecological water scarcity in most provinces was water pollution rather than human water use.[19]
Overall, there is a need for collaboration between hydrological, water quality, aquatic ecosystem science, and social science communities in water scarcity assessment.[6]
Available water
The United Nations (UN) estimates that, of 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (1 quadrillion acre-feet) of water on Earth, just 200,000 cubic kilometers (162.1 billion acre-feet) represent freshwater available for human consumption. A mere 0.014% of all water on Earth is both fresh and easily accessible.[41] Of the remaining water, 97% is saline, and a little less than 3% is difficult to access. The fresh water available to us on the planet is around 1% of the total water on earth.[42] The total amount of easily accessible freshwater on Earth, in the form of surface water (rivers and lakes) or groundwater (in aquifers, for example), is 14,000 cubic kilometers (nearly 3359 cubic miles). Of this total amount, 'just' 5,000 cubic kilometers are being used and reused by humanity. Technically, there is a sufficient amount of freshwater on a global scale. Hence, in theory, there is more than enough freshwater available to meet the demands of the current world population of more than 7 billion people, and even support population growth to 9 billion or more. Due to the unequal geographical distribution and especially the unequal consumption of water, however, it is a scarce resource in some parts of the world and for some parts of the population.
Apart from the common surface water sources of freshwater such as rivers and lakes, other resources of freshwater such as groundwater and glaciers have become more developed sources of freshwater, becoming the main source of clean water. Groundwater is water that has pooled below the surface of the Earth and can provide a usable quantity of water through springs or wells. These areas where groundwater is collected are also known as aquifers. More and more of these sources are being drawn upon as conventional sources' usability decreases due to factors such as pollution or disappearance due to climate changes. Human population growth is a significant contributing factor in the increasing use of these types of water resources.[39]
Scale
Current estimates
Water scarcity was listed in 2019 by the
About half of the world's population currently experience severe water scarcity for at least some part of the year.[44] Half a billion people in the world face severe water scarcity all year round.[5] Half of the world's largest cities experience water scarcity.[11] Almost two billion people do not currently have access to clean drinking water.
[45][46] A study in 2016 calculated that globally, the population under water scarcity increased from 0.24 billion (14% of global population) in the 1900s to 3.8 billion (58%) in the 2000s.[1] This study analyzed water scarcity using the fundamental concepts of shortage (impacts due to low availability per capita) and stress (impacts due to high consumption relative to availability).
Future predictions
In the 20th century, water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase. Specifically, water withdrawals are predicted to rise by 50 percent by 2025 in developing countries, and 18 per cent in developed countries.[47] One continent, for example, Africa, has been predicted to have 75 to 250 million inhabitants lacking access to fresh water.[48] By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions.[49] By 2050, more than half of the world's population will live in water-stressed areas, and another billion may lack sufficient water, MIT researchers find.[50]
With the increase in global temperatures and an increase in water demand, six out of ten people are at risk of being water-stressed. The drying out of wetlands globally, at around 67%, was a direct cause of a large number of people at risk of water stress. As the global demand for water increases and as climate temperatures rise, it is estimated that two-thirds of the population, in 2025, will live under water stress.[51][42]: 191
According to a projection by the United Nations, by 2040, there can be about 4.5 billion people affected by a water crisis (or water scarcity). Additionally, with the increase in population, there will be a demand for food, and for the food output to match the population growth, there would be an increased demand for water to irrigate crops.[52] The World Economic Forum estimates that global water demand will surpass global supply 40% by 2030.[53][54] Increasing the water demand as well as increasing the population results in a water crisis where there is not enough water to share in healthy levels. The crises are not only due to quantity but quality also matters.
A study found that of ~39 million
Impacts
There are several impacts and symptoms of water scarcity. These include serious restrictions on water use, "growing conflict between users and competition for water, declining standards of reliability and service, harvest failures and food insecurity".[17]: 6
Specific examples include:
- Food insecurity in the
- Inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 885 million people[60]
- Groundwater overdrafting (excessive use) leading to diminished agricultural yields[61]
- Overuse and pollution of water resources harming ecosystems and biodiversity
- Regional conflicts over scarce water resources sometimes resulting in warfare.[62]
Water supply shortages
Water is the underlying tenuous balance of safe water supply, but controllable factors such as the management and distribution of the water supply itself contribute to further scarcity. A 2006 United Nations report focuses on issues of governance as the core of the water crisis. The report noted that "There is enough water for everyone" and "Water insufficiency is often due to mismanagement, corruption, lack of appropriate institutions, bureaucratic inertia and a shortage of investment in both human capacity and physical infrastructure".[63]
It has also been claimed, primarily by economists, that the water situation has occurred because of a lack of
The clean water crisis is an emerging global crisis that affects approximately 785 million people around the world.
Environment
Abstraction of water for domestic, food and industrial uses has major impacts on
Through the last hundred years, more than half of the Earth's wetlands have been destroyed and have disappeared.
Subsidence, or the gradual sinking of landforms, is another result of water scarcity. The
Vegetation and wildlife are fundamentally dependent upon adequate freshwater resources. Marshes, bogs and riparian zones are more clearly dependent upon sustainable water supply. Forests and other upland ecosystems are equally at risk of significant productivity changes as water availability is diminished. In the case of wetlands, considerable area has been simply taken from wildlife use to feed and house the expanding human population. But other areas have suffered reduced productivity from gradual diminishing of freshwater inflow, as upstream sources are diverted for human use.
Causes and contributing factors
Population growth
Around fifty years ago, the common view was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now seven billion people on the planet and their consumption of water-thirsty meat is rising. Also, there is increasing competition for water from
In 2000, the world population was 6.2 billion. The UN estimates that, by 2050, there will be an additional 3.5 billion people with most of the growth in
In 60% of European cities with more than 100,000 people, groundwater is being used at a faster rate than it can be replenished.[77]
Over-exploitation of groundwater
Owing to
Until recently, groundwater was not a highly used resource. In the 1960s, more and more groundwater aquifers developed.[80] Changes in knowledge, technology and funding have allowed for focused development into abstracting water from groundwater resources away from surface water resources. These changes allowed for progress in society such as the "agricultural groundwater revolution", expanding the irrigation sector allowing for increased food production and development in rural areas.[81] Groundwater supplies nearly half of all drinking water in the world.[82] The large volumes of water stored underground in most aquifers have a considerable buffer capacity allowing for water to be withdrawn during periods of drought or little rainfall.[39] This is crucial for people that live in regions that cannot depend on precipitation or surface water as a supply alone, instead providing reliable access to water all year round. As of 2010, the world's aggregated groundwater abstraction is estimated at 1,000 km3 per year, with 67% used for irrigation, 22% used for domestic purposes and 11% used for industrial purposes.[39] The top ten major consumers of abstracted water (India, China, United States of America, Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, and Italy) make up 72% of all abstracted water use worldwide.[39]
Although groundwater sources are quite prevalent, one major area of concern is the renewal rate or recharge rate of some groundwater sources.
Expansion of agricultural and industrial users
Scarcity as a result of consumption is caused primarily by the extensive use of water in
Many aquifers have been over-pumped and are not recharging quickly. Although the total fresh water supply is not used up, much has become polluted, salted, unsuitable or otherwise unavailable for drinking, industry and agriculture. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.[88]
Business activities such as tourism continue to expand quickly. This expansion requires increased water services including both supply and sanitation, which can lead to more pressure on water resources and natural ecosystem. The approximate 50% growth in world energy use by 2040 will also increase the need for efficient water use.[88] It may shift some irrigation water sources towards industrial use, as thermal power generation uses water for steam generation and cooling.[89]
Water pollution
Climate change
The United Nations'
Overall, the effects of changes in population on water scarcity were found to be about four times more important than changes in water availability as a result of long-term climate change.[51]
Glaciers
About 2% of Earth's water is frozen freshwater found in glaciers. Glaciers provide freshwater in the form meltwater, or freshwater melted from snow or ice, that supply streams or springs as temperatures rise. This water is used by locals for a number of reasons like agriculture, livestock, and hydropower.[99] This is beneficial in helping reduce water scarcity as more water is available to a select number of people. It has been projected that total glaciers worldwide will be 60% of what they are now, in the year 2100.[99] The main reason for the melting of these glaciers is climate change. Glaciers reflect sunlight from the sun back into space providing a decrease in temperatures worldwide. This process is called albedo and without the glaciers reflecting sunlight, temperatures would slowly begin to rise.[100] As temperatures rise, glaciers will melt quicker overall reducing the total amount of sunlight being reflected worldwide. Melting glaciers, over a long period of time, begin receding and will be difficult to recover once seasonal changes occur. Glacier's losing mass may decrease their annual run-off, coupled with receding glaciers, which will change the availability of water in many cold regions of the world. About a third of glaciers may experience a 10% run-off reduction in some seasons.[101]
In the Himalayas, retreating glaciers could reduce summer water flows by up to two-thirds. In the Ganges area, this would cause a water shortage for 500 million people.[102] Climate change impacts potable water in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) area, where around 1.4 billion people are dependent on the five main rivers of Himalaya mountains.[103] Although the impact will vary from place to place, it is predicted that the amount of meltwater will initially increase due to retreating glaciers and then gradually decrease because of reducing in glacier mass.[104] In those areas where the amount of available water decreases, climate change makes it difficult to improve access to safe drinkable water.[105] HKH area faces rapid urbanization causing a severe shortage of water and pressure on water resources. Rural areas will also suffer because of a lack of effective water management infrastructure and limited access to drinking water. More people will migrate because of the scarcity of drinking water. This situation will increase inequality by leaving the poor behind leading to higher mortality and suicide rate, and increased urbanization.[106]
Options for improvements
Supply and demand side management
A review in 2006 stated that "It is surprisingly difficult to determine whether water is truly scarce in the physical sense at a global scale (a supply problem) or whether it is available but should be used better (a demand problem)".[107]
The
In general, there is enough water on an annual and global scale, but the issue is more of a temporal and spatial variation. Therefore, reservoirs and pipelines are needed to address the temporal and spatial variations. It is necessary to have a well-planned infrastructure with demand side management. Both supply-side and demand-side management have advantages and disadvantages.[citation needed]
Co-operation between countries
Lack of cooperation may give rise to regional water conflicts in many parts of the world, specially in developing countries, largely because of the disputes regarding the availability, use and management of water.[62] For example, the dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has escalated in 2020.[109][110] Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat, fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile.[111]
Water conservation
Expanding sources of usable water
Wastewater treatment and reclaimed water
Desalination
Water desalination
|
---|
Methods |
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Virtual water trade
The
The virtual water trade is the idea that when goods and services are exchanged, so is virtual water. Virtual water trade allows a new, amplified perspective on water problems: In the framewond balancing different perspectives, basic conditions, and interests. Analytically, the concept enables one to distinguish between global, regional, and local levels and their linkages. However, the use of virtual water estimates may offer no guidance for policymakers seeking to ensure that environmental objectives are being met. For example, cereal grains have been major carriers of virtual water in countries where water resources are scarce. Therefore, cereal imports can play a crucial role in compensating local water deficit.[131] However, low-income countries may not be able to afford such imports in the future which could lead to food insecurity and starvation.Regional examples
Overview of regions
Based on the map published by the
Generally speaking the more developed countries of
Africa
Water scarcity in Africa is predicted to reach dangerously high levels by 2025 when it is estimated that about two-thirds of the world's population may suffer from fresh water shortage. The main causes of water scarcity in Africa are physical and economic scarcity, rapid population growth, and climate change. Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand.[137] Although Sub-Saharan Africa has a plentiful supply of rainwater, it is seasonal and unevenly distributed, leading to frequent floods and droughts.[138] Additionally, prevalent economic development and poverty issues, compounded with rapid population growth and rural-urban migration have rendered Sub-Saharan Africa as the world's poorest and least developed region.[138][139]
The 2012 Report by theWest Africa and North Africa
Water scarcity in Yemen (see: Water supply and sanitation in Yemen) is a growing problem that has resulted from population growth, poor water management, climate change, shifts in rainfall, water infrastructure deterioration, poor governance, and other anthropogenic effects. As of 2011, it has been estimated that Yemen is experiencing water scarcity to a degree that affects its political, economic and social dimensions. As of 2015,[141] Yemen is among the most water scarce countries in the world. The majority of Yemen's population experiences water scarcity for at least one month during the year.
In Nigeria, some reports have suggested that increase in extreme heat, drought and the shrinking of Lake Chad is causing water shortage and environmental migration that is forcing thousands to migrate to neighboring Chad and towns.[142]
Asia
According to a major report compiled in 2019 by more than 200 researchers, the
Even with the overpumping of its
It is highly likely that climate change in Turkey will cause its southern river basins to be water scarce before 2070, and increasing drought in Turkey.[150]
Americas
In the
The west coast of
Australia
By far the largest part of
Some countries have already proven that decoupling water use from economic growth is possible. For example, in Australia, water consumption declined by 40% between 2001 and 2009 while the economy grew by more than 30%.[108]
By country
Water scarcity (or water crisis) in particular countries:
Society and culture
Global goals
Sustainable Development Goal 6 is about "clean water and sanitation for all".[161] It is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. The fourth target of SDG 6 refers to water scarcity and states: "By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity".[10] It has two indicators. The second one is: "Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources". The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been monitoring these parameters through its global water information system, AQUASTAT[1], since 1994.[35]: xii
See also
- Consumptive water use
- Desert greening
- Human right to water and sanitation
- Hydrogen fuel cell power plant
- Peak water
- Water conservation
- Water issues in developing countries
- Water footprint
- Water security
- All pages with titles containing water crisis
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