Weaving
Weaving is a method of
The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave. The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves:
Process and terminology
In general, weaving involves using a
Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called the primary motions of the loom.
- Shedding: where the warp threads (ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames (heddles) to form a clear space, referred to as the shed where the pick can pass
- Picking: where the weft or pick is propelled across the loom by hand, an air-jet, a rapier or a shuttle
- Beating-up or battening: where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the reed[4]
The warp is divided into two overlapping groups, or lines (most often adjacent threads belonging to the opposite group) that run in two planes, one above another, so the shuttle can be passed between them in a straight motion. Then, the upper group is lowered by the loom mechanism, and the lower group is raised (shedding), allowing the shuttle to pass in the opposite direction, also in a straight motion. Repeating these actions forms a fabric mesh but without beating-up, the final distance between the adjacent wefts would be irregular and far too large.
The secondary motions of the loom are the:
- Let off motion: where the warp is let off the warp beam at a regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design
- Take up motion: takes up the woven fabric in a regulated manner so that the density of filling is maintained
The tertiary motions of the loom are the stop motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main stop motions are the
- Warp stop motion
- Weft stop motion
The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam or weavers beam, the cloth-roll (apron bar), the heddles, and their mounting, the reed. The warp-beam is a wooden or metal cylinder on the back of the loom on which the warp is delivered. The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom where they are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) in a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are controlled by a dobby mechanism, where the healds are raised according to pegs inserted into a revolving drum. Where a complex design is required, the healds are raised by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made between the threads of warp, through which the pick is inserted. Traditionally the weft thread is inserted by a shuttle.[4][5]
On a conventional loom, continuous weft thread is carried on a pirn, in a shuttle that passes through the shed. A handloom weaver could propel the shuttle by throwing it from side to side with the aid of a picking stick. The "picking" on a power loom is done by rapidly hitting the shuttle from each side using an overpick or underpick mechanism controlled by cams 80–250 times a minute.[4] When a pirn is depleted, it is ejected from the shuttle and replaced with the next pirn held in a battery attached to the loom. Multiple shuttle boxes allow more than one shuttle to be used. Each can carry a different colour which allows banding across the loom.
The rapier-type weaving machines do not have shuttles, they propel cut lengths of weft by means of small grippers or rapiers that pick up the filling thread and carry it halfway across the loom where another rapier picks it up and pulls it the rest of the way.[6] Some carry the filling yarns across the loom at rates in excess of 2,000 metres per minute. Manufacturers such as Picanol have reduced the mechanical adjustments to a minimum, and control all the functions through a computer with a graphical user interface. Other types use compressed air to insert the pick. They are all fast, versatile and quiet.[7]
The warp is sized in a starch mixture for smoother running. The loom warped (loomed or dressed) by passing the sized warp threads through two or more heddles attached to harnesses. The power weavers loom is warped by separate workers. Most looms used for industrial purposes have a machine that ties new warps threads to the waste of previously used warps threads, while still on the loom, then an operator rolls the old and new threads back on the warp beam. The harnesses are controlled by cams, dobbies or a Jacquard head.
The raising and lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives rise to many possible weave structures:
- Plain weave: plain, and hopsacks, poplin, taffeta,[8] poult-de-soie, pibiones and grosgrain
- Twill weave: these are described by weft float followed by warp float, arranged to give diagonal pattern; examples are 2/1 twill, 3/3 twill, or 1/2 twill. These are softer fabrics than plain weaves.[9]
- Complex computer-generated interlacings, such as Jacquardfabric
- Pile fabrics: fabrics with a surface of cut threads (a pile), such as velvets and velveteens[10]
- Selvage refers to the fabric's edge, which may be marked with the manufacturer's detail. It is a narrow edge of a woven fabric parallel to its length.[11]
Both warp and weft can be visible in the final product. By spacing the warp more closely, it can completely cover the weft that binds it, giving a warp faced textile such as rep weave.[8] Conversely, if the warp is spread out, the weft can slide down and completely cover the warp, giving a weft faced textile, such as a tapestry or a Kilim rug. There are a variety of loom styles for hand weaving and tapestry.[8]
Archaeology
There are some indications that weaving was already known in the
The oldest known textiles found in the Americas are remnants of six finely woven textiles and cordage found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru. The weavings, made from plant fibres, are dated between 10,100 and 9080 BCE.[17][18]
In 2013 a piece of cloth woven from hemp was found in burial F. 7121 at the Çatalhöyük site,[19] suggested to be from around 7000 BCE[20][21] Further finds come from the Neolithic civilisation preserved in the pile dwellings in Switzerland.[22]
Another extant fragment from the Neolithic was found in
The oldest-known weavings in North America come from the
Evidence of weaving as a commercial household industry in the historical region of Macedonia has been found at the Olynthus site. When the city was destroyed by Philip II in 348 BCE, artifacts were preserved in the houses. Loomweights were found in many houses, enough to produce cloth to meet the needs of the household, but some of the houses contained more loomweights, enough for commercial production, and one of the houses was adjacent to the agora and contained three shops where many coins were found. It is probable that such homes were engaged in commercial textile manufacture.[30]
History
Weaving was known in all the great civilisations, but no clear line of causality has been established. Early looms required two people to create the shed and one person to pass through the filling. Early looms wove a fixed length of cloth, but later ones allowed warp to be wound out as the fell progressed. Weaving became simpler when the warp was sized.
Africa
Around the 4th century BCE , the cultivation of cotton and the knowledge of its spinning and weaving in
South America
The
In the
Whereas European cloth-making generally created ornamentation through "suprastructural" means—by adding embroidery, ribbons, brocade, dyeing, and other elements onto the finished woven textile—pre-Columbian Andean weavers created elaborate cloth by focusing on "structural" designs involving manipulation of the warp and weft of the fabric itself. Andeans used "tapestry techniques; double-, triple- and quadruple-cloth techniques; gauze weaves; warp-patterned weaves; discontinuous warp or scaffold weaves; and plain weaves" among many other techniques, in addition to the suprastructural techniques listed above.[39]
East Asia
The weaving of silk from silkworm cocoons has been known in China since about 3500 BCE. Silk that was intricately woven and dyed, showing a well developed craft, has been found in a Chinese tomb dating back to 2700 BCE.
Silk weaving in China was an intricate process that was very involved. Men and women, usually from the same family, had their own roles in the weaving process. The actual work of weaving was done by both men and women.[40] Women were often weavers since it was a way they could contribute to the household income while staying at home.[41] Women would usually weave simpler designs within the household while men would be in charge of the weaving of more intricate and complex pieces of clothing.[42] The process of sericulture and weaving emphasized the idea that men and women should work together instead of women being subordinate to men. Weaving became an integral part of Chinese women's social identity. Several rituals and myths were associated with the promotion of silk weaving, especially as a symbol of female power. Weaving contributed to the balance between men and women's economic contributions and had many economic benefits.[41][43]
There were many paths into the occupation of weaver. Women usually married into the occupation, belonged to a family of weavers and or lived in a location that had ample weather conditions that allowed for the process of silk weaving. Weavers usually belonged to the peasant class.[44] Silk weaving became a specialized job requiring specific technology and equipment that was completed domestically within households.[45] Although most of the silk weaving was done within the confines of the home and family, there were some specialized workshops that hired skilled silk weavers as well. These workshops took care of the weaving process, although the raising of the silkworms and reeling of the silk remained work for peasant families. The silk that was woven in workshops rather than homes were of higher quality, since the workshop could afford to hire the best weavers.[46] These weavers were usually men who operated more complicated looms, such as the wooden draw-loom.[47] This created a competitive market of silk weavers.
The quality and ease of the weaving process depended on the silk that was produced by the silk worms. The easiest silk to work with came from breeds of silk worms that spun their
After the reeling of the silk, the silk would be dyed before the weaving process began. There were many different looms and tools for weaving. For high quality and intricate designs, a wooden draw-loom or pattern loom was used.[47] This loom would require two or three weavers and was usually operated by men. There were also other smaller looms, such as the waist loom, that could be operated by a single woman and were usually used domestically.[47]
The pit-treadle loom may have originated in India though most authorities establish the invention in China.
-
Equipment for unraveling silk cocoons.Khotan
-
Women weaving silk. Kashgar
-
A traditional Vietnamese brocade and silk products weaver using a handloom
Southeast Asia
In the
-
Contemporary Philippines weaver demonstrating pineapple-plant fiber and silk cloths being woven in a traditional loom.
-
Pineapple-plant fiber and silk threads being woven in a traditional loom.
-
T'boli dream weavers. Like most indigenous pre-colonial Filipino textiles, they were typically made from abacáfibers.
Medieval Europe
The predominant
The weaver worked at home and marketed his cloth at
By the 13th century, an organisational change took place, and a system of putting out was introduced. The cloth merchant purchased the wool and provided it to the weaver, who sold his produce back to the merchant. The merchant controlled the rates of pay and economically dominated the cloth industry.[55] The merchants' prosperity is reflected in the wool towns of eastern England; Norwich, Bury St Edmunds and Lavenham being good examples. Wool was a political issue.[56] The supply of thread has always limited the output of a weaver. About that time, the spindle method of spinning was replaced by the great wheel and soon after the treadle-driven spinning wheel. The loom remained the same but with the increased volume of thread it could be operated continuously.[55]
The 14th century saw considerable flux in population. The 13th century had been a period of relative peace; Europe became overpopulated. Poor weather led to a series of poor harvests and starvation. There was great loss of life in the
The migration of the
Colonial United States
As a result, many people wove cloth from locally produced fibres. The colonists also used wool, cotton and flax (linen) for weaving, though hemp could be made into serviceable canvas and heavy cloth. They could get one cotton crop each year; until the invention of the cotton gin it was a labour-intensive process to separate the seeds from the fibres. Functional tape, bands, straps, and fringe were woven on box and paddle looms.[60]A plain weave was preferred as the added skill and time required to make more complex weaves kept them from common use. Sometimes designs were woven into the fabric but most were added after weaving using wood block prints or embroidery.
Industrial Revolution
Before the
Woven '
The invention in
A distinction can be made between the role and lifestyle and status of a handloom weaver, and that of the power loom weaver and craft weaver. The perceived threat of the power loom led to disquiet and industrial unrest. Well known protests movements such as the Luddites and the Chartists had handloom weavers amongst their leaders. In the early 19th-century power weaving became viable. Richard Guest in 1823 made a comparison of the productivity of power and handloom weavers:
A very good Hand Weaver, a man twenty-five or thirty years of age, will weave two pieces of nine-eighths shirting per week, each twenty-four yards long, and containing one hundred and five shoots of weft in an inch, the reed of the cloth being a forty-four, Bolton count, and the warp and weft forty hanks to the pound, A Steam Loom Weaver, fifteen years of age, will in the same time weave seven similar pieces.[69]
He then speculates about the wider economics of using power loom weavers:
...it may very safely be said, that the work is done in a Steam Factory containing two hundred Looms, would, if done by hand Weavers, find employment and support for a population of more than two thousand persons.[70]
With the Industrial Revolution came a growth in opportunity for women to work within textile factories. However, in spite of their gender, their work was perceived to have a lower social and economic value than work done by their male counterparts.[71]
Modern day
In the 1920s the weaving workshop of the Bauhaus design school in Germany aimed to raise weaving, previously seen as a craft, to a fine art, and also to investigate the industrial requirements of modern weaving and fabrics.[72] Under the direction of Gunta Stölzl, the workshop experimented with unorthodox materials, including cellophane, fibreglass, and metal.[73] From expressionist tapestries to the development of soundproofing and light-reflective fabric, the workshop's innovative approach instigated a modernist theory of weaving.[73] Former Bauhaus student and teacher Anni Albers published the seminal 20th-century text On Weaving in 1965.[74] Other notables from the Bauhaus weaving workshop include Otti Berger, Margaretha Reichardt, and Benita Koch-Otte.
In the Bauhaus, the weaving workshop was considered "the women's department", and many women were forced to join against wishes to study another art form.[75] Some weavers, like Helene Nonné-Schmidt believed that women were made to weave because they could only produce work in 2-D. She thought women lacked the spatial imagination and genius men had to work in other mediums.[76]
Hand weaving of Persian carpets and kilims has been an important element of the tribal crafts of many of the subregions of modern day Iran. Examples of carpet types are the Lavar Kerman carpet from Kerman and the Seraband rug from Arāk.[77][78]
Types
Hand loom weavers
Handloom weaving was done by both genders but men outnumbered women partially due to the strength needed to batten.
Power loom weavers
Power loom workers were usually girls and young women. They had the security of fixed hours, and except in times of hardship, such as in the
Craft weavers
Indigenous cultures
Native Americans
Textile weaving, using
Amazon cultures
Among the indigenous people of the
Computer science
The Nvidia Parallel Thread Execution ISA derives some terminology (specifically the term Warp to refer to a group of concurrent processing threads) from historical weaving traditions.[95]
Gender politics
Women's work
Weaving is a practice that is typically considered to be "women's work", either part of their employment, cultural practices, or leisure.[76][75][96] The categorization of weaving as women's work has bled into many fields, from art history, anthropology, sociology, and even psychology. While claiming that women had not contributed much to civilization's history, Sigmund Freud wrote that "one technique which they may have invented [is] that of plaiting and weaving."[97]
Women's work is often not recorded as a central activity to building Western history and culture.[71] Yet, some anthropologists argue that textile production facilitated societal establishment and growth, therefore women were integral to perpetuating communities.[98] To record their stories, beliefs, and symbols important to their culture, women engaged in weaving, embroidering, or other fiber practices. These practices have existed for centuries documented through art history, myth, and oral history and are still practiced today.
Reception in the mainstream art world
Weaving is often classified as "
In 1939, art critic Clement Greenberg wrote "Avant-Garde and Kitsch" where he presented his ideas about "high" and "low" art. His definition of "low" art was likely informed by years of theory against decoration and ornamentation, which was correlated with femininity in the early 1900s by critics like Adolf Loos and Karl Scheffler.[100][101] Although Greenberg never explicitly says the word "craft", many scholars postulate that this is one of the origins of Western opposition to weaving, and more largely art that is considered craft.[102]
Only recently has the art world begun to recognize weaving as an art form and to exhibit woven articles as art objects. Exhibitions of large scope have been organized to affirm the importance of textiles in the art historical canon, such as the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles' With Pleasure: Pattern and Decoration in American Art 1972–1985.[103] Women weavers, like Anni Albers, Lenore Tawney, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Olga de Amaral, and Sheila Hicks, are now the subject of exhibitions and major retrospectives across the world.[104][105] However, a majority of weavers being recognized in major institutions are predominantly white.
See also
- Textile
- Fiber
- Textile arts
- Fiber art
- Craft
- Basket weaving
- Persian weave
- Petate
- Textile manufacturing terminology
- Weaving (mythology)
Notes
- past participle of weave (Oxford English Dictionary, see "weft" and "weave".
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External links
- Media related to Weaving at Wikimedia Commons
- Cole, Alan Summerly (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). pp. 440–455. .
- Resource collection An on-line repository of articles (4720), books (459), illustrations (271), patents (398) and periodicals (1322) relating to weaving.
- British Pathé Weaving Linen 1940-1949 Educational film
- Illustrated Guide of Tilling and Weaving: Rural Life in China from 1696