Weed control

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beets

being weeded in Colorado, United States, in 1972

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Weed control is a type of

Weed control is important in agriculture. Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation with cultivators, smothering with mulch, lethal wilting with high heat, burning, and chemical control with herbicides (weed killers).

Need for control

Weeds compete with productive crops or pasture, they can be poisonous, distasteful, produce burrs, thorns or otherwise interfere with the use and management of desirable plants by contaminating harvests or interfering with livestock.

Weeds compete with crops for space,

gain a head start over germinating weeds.

Weeds also vary in their competitive abilities according to conditions and season. Tall-growing vigorous weeds such as fat hen (Chenopodium album) can have the most pronounced effects on adjacent crops, although seedlings of fat hen that appear in late summer produce only small plants. Chickweed (Stellaria media), a low growing plant, can happily co-exist with a tall crop during the summer, but plants that have overwintered will grow rapidly in early spring and may swamp crops such as onions or spring greens.^{[citation needed]}

The presence of weeds does not necessarily mean that they are damaging a crop, especially during the early growth stages when both weeds and crops can grow without interference. However, as growth proceeds they each begin to require greater amounts of water and nutrients. Estimates suggest that weed and crop can co-exist harmoniously for around three weeks before competition becomes significant. One study found that after competition had started, the final yield of onion bulbs was reduced at almost 4% per day.^[2]

Weeds can also host pests and diseases that can spread to cultivated crops.

, is carried by a range of different weeds including chickweed and groundsel.

Pests such as cutworms may first attack weeds but then move on to cultivated crops.

Some plants are considered weeds by some farmers and crops by others.

. Its bloom resists all but a very hard freeze, and recovers once the freeze ends.

Weed propagation

Seeds

dock

50 or more. There can be many thousands of seeds in a square foot or square metre of ground, thus any soil disturbance will produce a flush of fresh weed seedlings.

Subsurface/surface

The most persistent perennials spread by underground creeping

bramble

.

Methods

Weed control plans typically consist of many methods which are divided into biological, chemical, cultural, and physical/mechanical control.^[4]

Physical/mechanical methods

Coverings

In a domestic gardens, methods of weed control include covering an area of ground with a material that creates an unsuitable environment for weed growth, known as a weed mat. For example, several layers of wet newspaper prevent light from reaching plants beneath, which kills them.

In the case of black plastic, the greenhouse effect kills the plants. Although the black plastic sheet is effective at preventing weeds that it covers, it is difficult to achieve complete coverage. Eradicating persistent perennials may require the sheets to be left in place for at least two seasons.^{[citation needed]}

Some plants are said to produce root exudates that suppress

is also said to act as a barrier against the invasion of some weeds including couch. A 5–10 centimetres (2.0–3.9 in) layer of wood chip mulch prevents some weeds from sprouting.

Gravel can serve as an inorganic mulch.

to kill any plant other than the water-tolerant rice crop.

Manual removal

Many gardeners still remove weeds by manually pulling them out of the ground, making sure to include the roots that would otherwise allow some to re-sprout.

Hoeing off weed leaves and stems as soon as they appear can eventually weaken and kill perennials, although this will require persistence in the case of plants such as bindweed. Nettle infestations can be tackled by cutting back at least three times a year, repeated over a three-year period. Bramble can be dealt with in a similar way.

A highly successful, mostly manual, removal programme of weed control in natural bush land has been the control of

Tillage

Ploughing includes tilling of soil, intercultural ploughing and summer ploughing. Ploughing uproots weeds, causing them to die. Summer ploughing also helps in killing pests.

Mechanical tilling with various types of cultivators can remove weeds around crop plants at various points in the growing process.

An Aquamog can be used to remove weeds covering a body of water.^[7]

Thermal

Several thermal methods can control weeds.

Flame weeding uses a flame several centimetres/inches away from the weeds to singe them, giving them a sudden and severe heating.^[8] The goal of flame weeding is not necessarily burning the plant, but rather causing a lethal wilting by denaturing proteins in the weed. Similarly, hot air weeders can heat up the seeds to the point of destroying them. Flame weeders can be combined with techniques such as stale seedbeds (preparing and watering the seedbed early, then killing the nascent crop of weeds that springs up from it, then sowing the crop seeds) and pre-emergence flaming (doing a flame pass against weed seedlings after the sowing of the crop seeds but before those seedlings emerge from the soil—a span of time that can be days or weeks).

Hot foam causes the cell walls to rupture, killing the plant. Weed burners heat up soil quickly and destroy superficial parts of the plants. Weed seeds are often heat resistant and even react with an increase of growth on dry heat.

Since the 19th century soil steam sterilization has been used to clean weeds completely from soil. Several research results confirm the high effectiveness of humid heat against weeds and its seeds.^[9]

Soil solarization in some circumstances is very effective at eliminating weeds while maintaining grass. Planted grass tends to have a higher heat/humidity tolerance than unwanted weeds.^{[citation needed]}

Lasers

In precision agriculture, novel agricultural robots and machines can use lasers for weed control, called "laserweeding".^[10] Their benefits may include "healthier crops and soil, decreased herbicide use, and reduced chemical and labor costs".^[10]

Seed targeting

In 1998, the Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative debuted. gathered fifteen scientists and technical staff members to conduct field surveys, collect seeds, test for resistance and study the biochemical and genetic mechanisms of resistance. A collaboration with DuPont led to a mandatory herbicide labeling program, in which each mode of action is clearly identified by a letter of the alphabet.^[11]

The key innovation of the Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative has been to focus on weed seeds. Ryegrass seeds last only a few years in soil, so if farmers can prevent new seeds from arriving, the number of sprouts will shrink each year. Until the new approach farmers were unintentionally helping the seeds. Their combines loosen ryegrass seeds from their stalks and spread them over the fields. In the mid-1980s, a few farmers hitched covered trailers, called "chaff carts", behind their combines to catch the chaff and weed seeds. The collected material is then burned.^[11]

An alternative is to concentrate the seeds into a half-meter-wide strip called a windrow and burn the windrows after the harvest, destroying the seeds. Since 2003, windrow burning has been adopted by about 70% of farmers in Western Australia.^[11]

Yet another approach is the Harrington Seed Destructor, which is an adaptation of a coal pulverizing cage mill that uses steel bars whirling at up to 1500 rpm. It keeps all the organic material in the field and does not involve combustion, but kills 95% of seeds.^[11]

Cultural methods

Stale seed bed

Another manual technique is the ‘stale seed bed’, which involves cultivating the soil, then leaving it fallow for a week or so. When the initial weeds sprout, the grower lightly hoes them away before planting the desired crop. However, even a freshly cleared bed is susceptible to airborne seed from elsewhere, as well as seed carried by passing animals on their fur, or from imported manure.

Buried drip irrigation

Buried drip irrigation involves burying drip tape in the subsurface near the planting bed, thereby limiting weeds access to water while also allowing crops to obtain moisture. It is most effective during dry periods.^[12]

Crop rotation

Rotating crops with ones that kill weeds by choking them out, such as hemp,^[13] Mucuna pruriens, and other crops, can be a very effective method of weed control. It is a way to avoid the use of herbicides, and to gain the benefits of crop rotation.

Biological methods

A biological weed control regiment can consist of biological control agents, bioherbicides, use of grazing animals, and protection of natural predators.^[14] Post-dispersal, weed seed predators, like ground beetles and small vertebrates, can substantially contribute to the weed regulation by removing weed seeds from the soil surface and thus reduce seed bank size. Several studies provided evidence for the role of invertebrates to the biological control of weeds^[15][16]

Animal grazing

Companies using goats to control and eradicate

Chemical methods

Herbicides

The above described methods of weed control use no or very limited chemical inputs. They are preferred by

.

However weed control can also be achieved by the use of herbicides. Selective herbicides kill certain targets while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often based on plant hormones. Herbicides are generally classified as follows:^{[citation needed]}

• Contact herbicides destroy only plant tissue that contacts the herbicide. Generally, these are the fastest-acting herbicides. They are ineffective on perennial plants that can re-grow from roots or tubers.
• Systemic herbicides are foliar-applied and move through the plant where they destroy a greater amount of tissue. Glyphosate is currently the most used systemic herbicide.
• Soil-borne herbicides are applied to the soil and are taken up by the roots of the target plant.
• Pre-emergent
  herbicides are applied to the soil and prevent germination or early growth of weed seeds.

In agriculture large scale and systematic procedures are usually required, often by machines, such as large liquid herbicide 'floater' sprayers, or aerial application.

These are thought to likely have several substantial detrimental impacts (e.g. on soils, health and insects)^[18][19][20] – which may partly explain the development of alternatives described here – and there are also systematic procedures using herbicides that have lower impacts such as robots and machines that apply low amounts with high precision.^[21][22]

Organic approaches

Organic weed control involves anything other than applying manufactured chemicals. Typically a combination of methods are used to achieve satisfactory control.

Sulfur in some circumstances is accepted within British Soil Association standards.

Bradley method

The

uses ecological processes to do much of the work.

, which, although they do not spread underground, are able to regrow from any remaining piece left in the ground.

Hybrid

One method of maintaining the effectiveness of individual strategies is to combine them with others that work in complete different ways. Thus seed targeting has been combined with herbicides. In Australia seed management has been effectively combined with trifluralin and clethodim.^[11]

Herbicide resistance

Resistance occurs when a target plant species does not respond to a chemical that previously used to control it. It has been argued that over-reliance on herbicides along with the absence of any preventive or other cultural practices resulted in the evolution and spread of herbicide-resistant weeds.

Farming practices

Herbicide resistance recently became a critical problem as many Australian sheep farmers switched to exclusively growing wheat in their pastures in the 1970s. In wheat fields, introduced varieties of

In 1983, patches of ryegrass had become immune to Hoegrass, a family of herbicides that inhibit an enzyme called

Ryegrass populations were large, and had substantial genetic diversity, because farmers had planted many varieties. Ryegrass is cross-pollinated by wind, so genes shuffle frequently. Farmers sprayed inexpensive Hoegrass year after year, creating selection pressure, but were diluting the herbicide in order to save money, increasing plants survival. Hoegrass was mostly replaced by a group of herbicides that block

Weed societies

Internationally, weed societies help collaboration in weed science and management. In North America the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) was founded in 1956 and publishes three journals: Weed Science, Weed Technology, and Invasive Plant Science and Management. In Britain, European Weed Research Council was established in 1958 and later expanded their scope under the name European Weed Research Society^[26][27] The main journal of this society is Weed Research.^[28] Moreover, the Council of Australasian Weed Society (CAWS) ^[29] serves as a centre for information on Australian weeds, while New Zealand Plant Protection Society (NZPPS) facilitates information sharing in New Zealand.^[30]

Strategic weed management is a process of managing weeds at a district, regional or national scale. In Australia the first published weed management strategies were developed in Tasmania,^[31] New South Wales^[32] and South Australian 1999,^[33] followed by the National Weeds Strategy in 1999.^[34][35]

See also

• Control of Bramble
• Crop weed
• Integrated pest management
• Invasive species
• Mechanical weed control
• Mulch
• Noxious weed
• Pesticide application

References