African theatre of World War I

Theatre of operations during World War I

For the conflict also known as "Africa's First World War", see First Congo War.

See also: List of uprisings against Entente powers during World War I

African theatre of World War I
Part of World War I
German trenches in Garoua, German Cameroon
Date 3 August 1914 – 25 November 1918 (4 years, 3 months, 3 weeks and 1 day) Location Africa Result Allied victory Territorial changes Annexation of the German colonies by the Allies Termination of residual Ottoman rights in Tripolitania Annexation of the Sultanate of Darfur by Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Belligerents
Entente Powers:  United Kingdom  South Africa  India  Gold Coast  Nigeria  East Africa  Rhodesia  Nyasaland  Uganda  Australia  New Zealand  Egypt  Sudan  Somaliland  France  West Africa  Equatorial Africa   Morocco Belgium  Congo  Portugal  Angola  Mozambique  Italy (1915–18)  Tripolitania  Cyrenaica  Eritrea  Somaliland	Central Powers:  Germany  Togoland  Kamerun  South West Africa  East Africa Ottoman Empire Co-belligerents: South African Republic[a] Senussi Order[b]  Sultanate of Darfur[c] Dervish Movement[d] Supported by:  Ethiopia[1] (1915–1916)
Commanders and leaders
Louis Botha Jan Smuts Charles Dobell Reginald Hoskins William Peyton Reginald Wingate Joseph Aymerich François Clozel Hubert Lyautey Félix Fuchs Charles Tombeur Armand Huyghé Alves Roçadas Ferreira Gil João Pinto † Giovanni Ameglio Giacomo De Martino	Heinrich Schnee Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck Hans Georg von Doering Karl Ebermaier Carl Zimmermann Theodor Seitz Joachim von Heydebreck † Victor Franke Nuri Pasha Jafar Pasha Manie Maritz Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi Ali Dinar † Mohammed Abdullah Hassan
Casualties and losses
750,000 African civilians dead from famine and disease[2]

The African theatre of the

First World War comprises campaigns in North Africa instigated by the German and Ottoman empires, local rebellions against European colonial rule and Allied campaigns against the German colonies of Kamerun, Togoland, German South West Africa, and German East Africa. The campaigns were fought by German Schutztruppe, local resistance movements and forces of the British Empire, France, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal.^[e]

Background

Strategic context

German colonies in Africa had been acquired in the 1880s and were not well defended. They were enclosed by territories controlled by

neutral if war broke out in Europe; in 1914 none of the European powers had plans to challenge their opponents for control of overseas colonies. When news of the outbreak of war reached European colonialists in Africa, it was met by little of the enthusiasm seen in the capital cities of the states which maintained colonies.^[5] An editorial in the East African Standard on 22 August argued that Europeans in Africa should not fight each other but instead collaborate to maintain the repression of the indigenous population. War was against the interest of the white colonialists because they were small in number, many of the European conquests were recent, unstable and operated through existing local structures of power; the organisation of African economic potential for European profit had only recently begun.^[5][f]

In Britain, an Offensive sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence was appointed on 5 August and established a principle that command of the seas was to be ensured and that objectives were considered only if they could be attained with local forces and if the objective assisted the priority of maintaining British sea communications, as British Army garrisons abroad were returned to Europe in an "Imperial Concentration". Attacks on German coaling stations and wireless stations were considered to be important to clear the seas of Imperial German Navy commerce raiders. The objectives were at Luderitz Bay, Windhoek, Duala and Dar-es-Salaam in Africa and a German wireless station in Togoland, next to the British colony of Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, which were considered vulnerable to attack by local or allied forces and in the Far East, which led to the Siege of Tsingtao.^[6]

North Africa

Main article:

North African operations during World War I

Zaian War, 1914–1921

Main article: Zaian War

Attempts were made by the

Khénifra but managed to inflict many casualties on the French, who responded by establishing groupes mobiles, combined arms formations of regular and irregular infantry, cavalry and artillery. By 1914 the French had 80,000 troops in Morocco but two-thirds were withdrawn from 1914 to 1915 for service in France and at the Battle of El Herri (13 November 1914) more than 600 French soldiers were killed. Hubert Lyautey, the governor, reorganised his forces and pursued a forward policy rather than passive defence. The French regained most of the lost territory, despite intelligence and financial support from the Central Powers to the Zaian Confederation and raids which caused losses to the French when already short of manpower.^[8]

Senussi campaign, 1915–1917

Main articles:

Senussi and Senussi campaign

Before 1906, when the Senussi became involved in resistance against the French, they had been a "relatively peaceful religious sect of the Sahara Desert, opposed to fanaticism".[9] In the Italo-Turkish War (29 September 1911 – 18 October 1912) Italian forces occupied enclaves along the Libyan coast and the Senussi resisted from the interior, maintaining generally friendly relations with the British in Egypt. In 1913, the Italians had been defeated at the action of Etangi but in 1914 Italian reinforcements led to a revival and by January the Senussi were in south-eastern Cyrenaica. The Senussi had about 10,000 men armed with modern rifles, with ammunition from a factory which produced 1,000 rounds a day. Intermittent fighting continued between the Italians in fortified towns and the Senussi ranging through the desert.^[9] The British declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 5 November and the leadership of the Ottoman Empire encouraged the Senussi to attack Egypt from the west. The Ottomans wanted the Senussi to conduct operations against the rear of the defenders of the Suez Canal; the Ottomans had failed in previous attacks against British forces from Sinai in the east and wanted them to be distracted by attacks from the opposite direction.^[10]

Coastal campaign, 1915–1916

See also: Western Frontier Force

On 6 November, the German submarine U–35 torpedoed and sank a steamer, HMS Tara, in the Bay of Sollum. U-35 surfaced, sank the coastguard gunboat Abbas and badly damaged Nur el Bahr with its deck gun. On 14 November the Senussi attacked an Egyptian position at Sollum and on the night of 17 November, a party of Senussi fired into Sollum as another party cut the coast telegraph line. Next night a monastery at Sidi Barrani, 48 mi (77 km) beyond Sollum, was occupied by 300 Muhafizia and on the night of 19 November, a coastguard was killed. An Egyptian post was attacked 30 mi (48 km) east of Sollum on 20 November. The British withdrew from Sollum to Mersa Matruh, 120 mi (190 km) further east, which had better facilities for a base and the Western Frontier Force (Major-General A. Wallace) was created.^[11][g] On 11 December, a British column sent to Duwwar Hussein was attacked along the Matruh–Sollum track and in the Affair of Wadi Senba, drove the Senussi out of the wadi.^[13] The reconnaissance continued and on 13 December at Wadi Hasheifiat, the British were attacked again and held up until artillery came into action in the afternoon and forced the Senussi to retreat.^[14]

The British returned to Matruh until 25 December and then made a night advance to surprise the Senussi. At the Affair of Wadi Majid, the Senussi were defeated but were able to withdraw to the west.

Dorset Yeomanry as they withdrew; the Yeomanry charged across open ground swept by machine-gun and rifle fire. The British lost half their horses and 58 of 184 men but prevented the Senussi from slipping away. Jafar Pasha, the commander of the Senussi forces on the coast, was captured and Sollum was re-occupied by British forces on 14 March 1916, which concluded the coastal campaign.^[17]

Band of Oases campaign, 1916–1917

On 11 February 1916

Farafra Oasis was occupied at the same time and then the Senussi moved on to Dakhla Oasis on 27 February. The British responded by forming the Southern Force at Beni Suef. Egyptian officials at Kharga Oasis were withdrawn and the oasis was occupied by the Senussi until they withdrew without being attacked. The British reoccupied the oasis on 15 April and began to extend the light railway terminus at Kharga to the Moghara Oasis. The mainly Australian Imperial Camel Corps patrolled on camels and in light Ford Motor Company cars to cut off the Senussi from the Nile Valley. Preparations to attack Bahariya Oasis were detected by the Senussi garrison, which withdrew to Siwa in early October. The Southern Force attacked the Senussi in the Affairs in the Dakhla Oasis (17–22 October), after which the Senussi retreated to their base at Siwa.^[18]

In January 1917, a British column including the Light Armoured Car Brigade with

accords of Akramah, Idris accepted the British terms on 12 April and those of Italy on 14 April.^[19]

Volta-Bani War, 1915–1917

Main article: Volta-Bani War

The Volta-Bani War was an anti-colonial rebellion that took place in parts of French West Africa (now Burkina Faso and Mali) between 1915 and 1917. It was a war between an indigenous African army, a heterogeneous coalition of peoples against the French Army. At its height in 1916, the indigenous forces mustered from 15,000–20,000 men and fought on several fronts. After about a year and several setbacks, the French army defeated the insurgents and jailed or executed their leaders but resistance continued until 1917.^[20]

Darfur Expedition, 1916

Main article:

Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition

On 1 March 1916 hostilities began between the Sudanese government and the Sultanate of Darfur.^[21] The Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition was conducted to forestall an imagined invasion of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the Sultanate of Egypt by the Darfurian leader, Sultan Ali Dinar, which was believed to have been synchronised with a Senussi advance into Egypt from the west.^[22] The Sirdar (commander) of the Egyptian Army organised a force of c. 2,000 men at Rahad, a railhead 200 mi (320 km) east of the Darfur frontier. On 16 March, the force crossed the frontier mounted in lorries from a forward base established at Nahud, 90 mi (140 km) from the border, with the support of four aircraft. By May the force was close to the Darfur capital of El Fasher. At the Affair of Beringia on 22 May, the Fur Army was defeated and the Anglo-Egyptian force captured the capital the next day. Dinar and 2,000 followers had left before their arrival and as they moved south, were bombed from the air.^[23]

French troops in Chad who had returned from the Kamerun campaign prevented a Darfurian withdrawal westwards. Dinar withdrew into the Marra Mountains 50 mi (80 km) south of El Fasher and sent envoys to discuss terms but the British believed he was prevaricating and ended the talks on 1 August. Internal dissension reduced the force with Dinar to c. 1,000 men; Anglo-Egyptian outposts were pushed out from El Fasher to the west and southwest after the August rains. A skirmish took place at Dibbis on 13 October and Dinar opened negotiations but was again suspected of bad faith. Dinar fled southwest to Gyuba and a small force was sent in pursuit. At dawn on 6 November, the Anglo-Egyptians attacked in the Affair of Gyuba and Dinar's remaining followers scattered. The body of the Sultan was found 1 mi (1.6 km) from the camp.^[24] After the expedition, Darfur was incorporated into Sudan.^[25]

Kaocen revolt, 1916–1917

Main article: Kaocen revolt

Toubou and Fula in the Sultanate of Damagaram was defeated.^[26]

Somaliland campaign, 1914–1918

Main article: Somaliland campaign

Dervish State

In

When the Ottoman Empire entered the war in November 1914, the British colonial authorities in British East Africa became apprehensive of attacks from the Muslims of Ethiopia and Somaliland but none transpired until 1916, when trouble also broke out in some Muslim units of the Indian Army stationed in East Africa, including desertions and self-inflicted wounds. In February, about 500 Aulihan warriors from Somaliland captured a British fort at Serenli and killed 65 soldiers of the garrison and their British officer. The British retired from their main fort in the north-east at Wajir and it was not for two years that the Aulihan were defeated.^[29] The complications caused by the Ottoman call to Jihad had put the British to considerable trouble in East Africa and elsewhere, to avoid the growth of a pan-Muslim movement. Even when the Ottoman call had little effect, the British were fearful of an African Jihad. To impress the Somali people, some elders were taken to Egypt in 1916 to view the military might of the British empire. The warships, railways and prison camps full of German and Ottoman soldiers made a great impression, which was increased by the outbreak of the Arab Revolt in June.^[30][i]

West Africa

Togoland campaign, 1914

The Togoland Campaign (9–26 August 1914) was a

In the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (now Nigeria), the British policy of indirect rule through local proxies was extended after the outbreak of the First World War, when British colonial officers and troops were withdrawn for war service. The British became more dependent on local emirs but in Bussa, the re-organisation of local government in 1912 overthrew the authority of the traditional ruler.^[36] The hereditary Emir of Bussa, Kitoro Gani was moved aside and the Borgu Emirate was divided, each area ruled by a Beit-el-mal (native administration).^[37] In June 1915, about 600 rebels, armed with bows and arrows occupied Bussa, captured and killed half of the new native administration; the survivors fled the district. The rebellion caused panic because the British authorities were so short of troops.^[38] A small force from the West African Frontier Force (WAFF) and the Nigeria police moved into Bussa and skirmished with the rebels. No soldiers were killed and only 150 shots were fired. Sabukki, one of the ringleaders fled to nearby French Dahomey and the rebellion was suppressed.^[39]

The war in Nigeria played a role in British politics during the war. At the beginning of the war, the British government seized foreign expatriate firms in the lucrative

By 25 August 1914, British forces in Nigeria had moved into Kamerun towards Mara in the far north, towards Garoua in the centre and towards Nsanakang in the south. British forces moving towards Garua under the command of Colonel MacLear were ordered to push to the German border post at Tepe near Garua. The first engagement between British and German troops in the campaign took place at the Battle of Tepe, eventually resulting in German withdrawal.^[43] In the far north British forces attempted to take the German fort at Mora but failed and began a siege which lasted until the end of the campaign.^[44] British forces in the south attacked Nsanakang and were defeated and almost completely destroyed by German counterattacks at the Battle of Nsanakong.^[45] MacLear then pushed his forces further inland towards the German stronghold of Garua but was repulsed in the First Battle of Garua on 31 August.^[46]

In 1915 the German forces, except for those at Mora and Garua, withdrew to the mountains near the new capital of

German forces began to cross into the Spanish colony of

The Adubi War was an uprising that occurred in June and July 1918 in the British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, because of taxation introduced by the colonial government.

An invasion of

General

The campaign in southern

Military operations, 1914–1915

On the outbreak of war there were 2,760 Schutztruppen and 2,319 men in the

The British command planned an operation to suppress German raiding and to capture the northern region of the German colony.

The uprising was led by

A

Mersey was hit twice, six crew killed and its gun disabled; Severn was straddled but hit Königsberg several times, before the spotter aircraft returned to base. An observation party was seen in a tree and killed and when a second aircraft arrived both monitors resumed fire. German return fire diminished in quantity and accuracy and later in the afternoon the British ships withdrew. The monitors returned on 11 June and hit Königsberg with the eighth salvo and within ten minutes the German ship could only reply with three guns. A large explosion was seen at 12:52 p.m. At 1:46 p.m. seven explosions occurred. By 2:20 p.m. Königsberg was a mass of flames.^[90] The British salvaged six 4 in (100 mm) guns from the Pegasus, which became known as the Peggy guns, and the crew of Königsberg salvaged the 4.1 in (100 mm) main battery guns of their ship and joined the Schutztruppe.^[91]

Lake Tanganyika expedition, 1915

The Germans had maintained control of the lake since the outbreak of the war, with three armed steamers and two unarmed motorboats. In 1915, two British motorboats, HMS Mimi and HMS Toutou (Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson), each armed with a 3-pounder gun and a Maxim gun, were transported 3,000 mi (4,800 km) by land to the British shore of Lake Tanganyika. The British captured the German ship Kingani on 26 December, renamed it HMS Fifi and accompanied by two Belgian ships, attacked and sank the German ship Hedwig von Wissmann. MV Liemba and Wami, an unarmed motorboat, were the only German ships left on the lake. In February 1916 the Wami was intercepted and run ashore by the crew and burned.^[92] Lettow-Vorbeck had the Königsberg gun removed and sent by rail to the main fighting front.^[93] Graf von Götzen was scuttled in mid-July after the Belgian Armed Forces made bombing attacks by floatplanes, loaned by the British, before Belgian colonial troops advancing on Kigoma could capture it; Graf von Götzen was refloated and used by the British.^{[94] [j]}

East African campaign, 1916–1918

Military operations, 1916

General

The Belgian Force Publique of 12,417 men formed three groups, each with 7,000–8,000 porters, yet expected to live off the land. The 1915 harvest had been exhausted and the 1916 harvest had not matured; Belgian requisitions alienated the local civilians. On 5 April, the Belgians offered an armistice to the Germans and then on 12 April commenced hostilities.^[100] The Force Publique advanced between Kigali and Nyanza under the command of General Charles Tombeur, Colonel Molitor and Colonel Olsen and captured Kigali on 6 May.^[100] The Germans in Burundi were forced back and by 17 June the Belgians had occupied Burundi and Rwanda. The Force Publique and the British Lake Force then advanced towards Tabora, an administrative centre of central German East Africa. The Allies moved in three columns and took Biharamulo, Mwanza, Karema, Kigoma and Ujiji. Tabora was captured unopposed on 19 September.^[101] To forestall Belgian claims on the German colony, Smuts ordered Belgian forces back to Congo, leaving them as occupiers only in Rwanda and Burundi. The British were obliged to recall Belgian troops in 1917 and after this the Allies coordinated campaign plans.^[102]

Military operations, 1917–1918

Major-General

In March 1917 the Makonbe people achieved a measure of social unity, rebelled against the Portuguese colonialists in Zambezia province of Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique) and defeated the colonial regime. About 20,000 rebels besieged the Portuguese in Tete. The British refused to lend troops to the Portuguese but 10,000–15,000 Ngoni people were recruited on the promise of loot, women and children. Through terrorism and enslavement, the Portuguese quashed the rebellion by the end of the year. Repercussions of the rising continued as British administrators in Northern Rhodesia in 1918 struggled to compensate local civilians for war service, particularly during the famine of 1917–1918. The Colonial Office banned the coercion of local civilians into British service in the colony, which stranded British troops.^[109]

Barue uprising, 1917

The colonial authorities in Portuguese Mozambique increased the brutality of their occupation during the war. "Revolting practices" criticised by the British, such as forced labour, were increasingly applied despite the abolition of slavery. Press gangs (cipais) used the most brutal coercion to mobilise whole populations, young, old and infirm people not being exempted and women being raped. By the end of 1916, many young men had fled to Southern Rhodesia and Transvaal to escape the Portuguese and to earn living wages. The condition of the populations left behind worsened to the point that when the cipais tried to raise another 5,000 carriers from the Kingdom of Barue in March 1917, the population rebelled. Disgust at Portuguese depredations united many Peoples but the rivals for the title of Makombe of the Wabarue fought independent campaigns, attracting support from the bandits in the Zambesi valley. At the end of April, the rebels routed a Portuguese force sent to suppress the rising and reached the provincial capital of Tete; by the end of May had overrun most of Zambezia Province. About 100,000 people crossed the border into British Nyasaland and the Rhodesian colonies to escape the violence but the disruption did little to alter British disdain for Portuguese methods and despite having received troops to help put down the Chilembwe rebellion, they refused to send troops, only allowing guns and ammunition over the border. In May the Portuguese began to suppress the rebels by butchering thousands of people, enslaving women and plundering territory. The rebels held out into November and the rivals for the title of Makombe fled to Southern Rhodesia. During June the Portuguese had to divide their forces and send thousands of Portuguese and local troops to attack the Makonde living on the Mvua plateau, who had also rebelled.^[110] Another rebellion broke out early in 1918.^[111]

Aftermath

Analysis

The war marked the end of the German colonial empire; during the war, the Entente powers posed as crusaders for liberalism and enlightenment but little evidence exists that they were seen as such by Africans. Many African soldiers fought on both sides, loyal to military professionalism, rather than nationalism and porters had mainly been attracted by pay or had been coerced. The war had been the final period of the Scramble for Africa; control and annexation of territory had been the principal war aim of the Europeans and the main achievement of Lettow-Vorbeck, had been to thwart some of the ambitions of the South African colonialists.^[112] Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany's colonies were divided between France, Britain, Belgium, Portugal and South Africa. The former German colonies had gained independence by the 1960s except for South West Africa (Namibia) which gained independence from South Africa in 1990.^[113]

Casualties

The British official historian of the "History of the Great War" campaigns in "Togo and the Cameroons", F. J. Moberly, recorded 927 British casualties, 906 French casualties, the invaliding of 494 of 807 Europeans and 1,322 out of 11,596 African soldiers. Civilian porters were brought from Allied colonies and of c. 20,000 carriers, 574 were killed or died of disease and 8,219 were invalided as they could be "more easily replaced than soldiers". Of 10,000–15,000 locally recruited civilians, no records were kept. Franco-Belgian troops under the command of General Joseph Aymerich suffered 1,685 killed and 117 soldiers died of disease.^[114]

In 2001 Strachan recorded British losses in the East African campaign as 3,443 killed in action, 6,558 died of disease and c. 90,000 deaths among African porters. In South West Africa, Strachan recorded 113 South Africans killed in action and 153 died of disease or accidents. German casualties were 1,188 of whom 103 were killed and 890 were taken prisoner.^[115] In 2007 Paice recorded c. 22,000 British casualties in the East African campaign, of whom 11,189 died, 9 per cent of the 126,972 troops in the campaign. By 1917 the conscription of c. 1,000,000 Africans as carriers, had depopulated many districts and c. 95,000 porters had died, among them 20 per cent of the British Carrier Corps in East Africa.^[116]

A Colonial Office bureaucrat wrote that the East African campaign had not become a scandal only "....because the people who suffered most were the carriers - and after all, who cares about native carriers?"^[117] In the German colonies, no records of the number of people conscripted or casualties were kept but in the German Official History, the writer referred to

....[of] the loss of levies, carriers and boys [sic] [we could] make no overall count due to the absence of detailed sickness records.

— Ludwig Boell^[117]

Paice referred to a 1989 estimate of 350,000 casualties and a death rate of 1:7 people. Carriers impressed by the Germans were rarely paid and food and cattle were stolen from civilians; a famine caused by the consequent food shortage and poor rains in 1917, led to another 300,000 civilian deaths in Ruanda, Urundi and German East Africa.

• German Colonial Empire
• African theatre of World War II
• Black and White in Color (1976)

Notes

Footnotes

1. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2006, p. 43.
2. ^ "War Losses (Africa)". 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
3. ^ Skinner & Stacke 1922, p. 331.
4. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 495–505.
5. ^ ^{a b c} Strachan 2003, p. 496.
6. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 12–13.
7. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 756–757.
8. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 767.
9. ^ ^{a b} Macmunn & Falls 1996, p. 411.
10. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 103–106.
11. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 106–107.
12. ^ Bostock 1982, p. 28.
13. ^ Skinner & Stacke 1922, p. 210.
14. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 110–112, 113–118.
15. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 113–118.
16. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 119–123.
17. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 123–129.
18. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 135–140.
19. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, pp. 140–144.
20. ^ Chafer 2005, pp. 1–2.
21. ^ Skinner & Stacke 1922, p. 211.
22. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 749, 747.
23. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, p. 151.
24. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 749.
25. ^ Macmunn & Falls 1996, p. 153.
26. ^ Fuglestad 1973, pp. 82–121.
27. ^ ^{a b} Omar 2001, p. 402.
28. ^ Paice 2009, p. 217.
29. ^ Paice 2009, p. 158.
30. ^ Paice 2009, p. 222.
31. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 747.
32. ^ ^{a b} Moberly 1995, pp. 17–40.
33. ^ Gorman & Newman 2009, p. 629.
34. ^ Louis 2006, p. 217.
35. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 642.
36. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 542.
37. ^ Crowder 1973, p. 93.
38. ^ Crowder 1978, pp. 17, 16.
39. ^ Crowder 1973, pp. 120–122.
40. ^ Yearwood 1998, p. 49–71.
41. ^ Adams 1999, p. 222.
42. ^ Campbell 2010, pp. 166–167.
43. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 73–93.
44. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 170–173, 228–230, 421.
45. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 106–109.
46. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 93–97.
47. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 268–270.
48. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 294–299.
49. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 300–301, 322–323.
50. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 346–350.
51. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 388–293.
52. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 383–384.
53. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 405–419.
54. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 538–539.
55. ^ Moberly 1995, p. 421.
56. ^ Moberly 1995, p. 412.
57. ^ Quinn 1973, pp. 722–731.
58. ^ Njung 2016, pp. 1–417.
59. ^ Oduntan 2010, p. 218.
60. ^ Oduntan 2010, pp. 219, 231, 220.
61. ^ Falola & Genova 2009, pp. 110–111.
62. ^ Hogan 2013, pp. 299–313.
63. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 550, 555.
64. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 550, 552, 554.
65. ^ ^{a b c} Tucker & Wood 1996, p. 654.
66. ^ ^{a b c} Crafford 2005, p. 102.
67. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 556–557.
68. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 559–565.
69. ^ Burg & Purcell 1998, p. 59.
70. ^ ^{a b} Strachan 2003, p. 551.
71. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 551–552.
72. ^ ^{a b c} Strachan 2003, p. 553.
73. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 552.
74. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 554.
75. ^ Fraga 2010, pp. 127–128.
76. ^ Fraga 2010, p. 128.
77. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 559.
78. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 558–559.
79. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 577–579.
80. ^ Miller 1974, p. 42.
81. ^ Miller 1974, p. 43.
82. ^ Miller 1974, p. 195.
83. ^ Hordern 1990, p. 101.
84. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 600.
85. ^ Rotberg 1971, p. 135.
86. ^ Hordern 1990, pp. 179–180.
87. ^ Rotberg 1971, p. 137.
88. ^ Hordern 1990, p. 45.
89. ^ Corbett 2003, pp. 64–65.
90. ^ Corbett 2003, pp. 65–67.
91. ^ Hordern 1990, p. 45, 162.
92. ^ Newbolt 2003, pp. 80–85.
93. ^ Miller 1974, p. 211.
94. ^ ^{a b} Paice 2009, p. 230.
95. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 602.
96. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 599.
97. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 614.
98. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 618.
99. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 627–628.
100. ^ ^{a b} Strachan 2003, p. 617.
101. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 617–619.
102. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 630.
103. ^ Miller 1974, p. 281.
104. ^ Miller 1974, p. 287.
105. ^ Hoyt 1981, p. 175.
106. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 590.
107. ^ Miller 1974, p. 297.
108. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 641.
109. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 636, 640.
110. ^ Paice 2009, pp. 320–321.
111. ^ Paice 2009, pp. 368, 375.
112. ^ Strachan 2003, p. 643.
113. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 642–643.
114. ^ Moberly 1995, pp. 424, 426–427.
115. ^ Strachan 2003, pp. 641, 568.
116. ^ Paice 2009, pp. 392–393.
117. ^ ^{a b} Paice 2009, p. 393.
118. ^ Paice 2009, p. 398.
119. ^ Paice 2009, pp. 393–398.

References

Books

• Adams, R. J. Q. (1999). Bonar Law. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
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• Bostock, H. P. (1982). The Great Ride: The Diary of a Light Horse Brigade Scout, World War I. Perth: Artlook Books.
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• Burg, D. F.; Purcell, L. E. (1998). Almanac of World War I. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky.
  ISBN 978-0-8131-2072-0
  .
• Campbell, John (2010). Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown. London: Vintage.
  ISBN 978-1-84595-091-0
  .
• Corbett, J. S. (2003) [1940]. Naval Operations. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. III (2nd rev. ed.). London: Longmans.
  ISBN 978-1-84342-491-8
  .
• Crafford, F. S. (2005) [1943]. Jan Smuts: A Biography (repr. ed.). Kessinger.
  ISBN 978-1-4179-9290-4
  .
• Crowder, Michael (1973). Revolt in Bussa: A Study of British 'Native Administration' in Nigerian Borgu, 1902–1935. London: Faber and Faber.
  ISBN 978-0-571-09395-3
  .
• Crowder, Michael, ed. (1978) [1971]. West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation. Hutchinson University Library for Africa (rev. ed.). Sydney: Hutchinson.
  ISBN 978-0-09-134031-5
  .
• Falola, Toyin; Genova, Ann (2009). Woronoff, Jon (ed.). Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. Historical Dictionaries of Africa. Vol. 111. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8108-5615-8
  .
• Fraga, L. A. (2010). Do intervencionismo ao sidonismo: os dois segmentos da política de guerra na 1a República, 1916–1918 [Interventionism to Sidonismo the two Segments of War Policy in the First Republic] (in Portuguese). Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra.
  ISBN 978-9-89260-034-5
  .
• Gorman, A.; Newman, A. (2009). Stokes, J. (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. New York: Facts on File.
  ISBN 978-0-8160-7158-6
  .
• Hogan, Edmund M. (2013). Cross and Scalpel: Jean-Marie Coquard Among the Egba of Yorubaland. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.
  ISBN 978-978-081-287-4
  .
• Hordern, C. (1990) [1941]. Military Operations East Africa: August 1914 – September 1916. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. I (Imperial War Museum & Battery Press ed.). London:
  ISBN 978-0-89839-158-9
  .
• Hoyt, E. P. (1981). Guerilla: Colonel von Lettow-Vorbeck and Germany's East African Empire. New York: MacMillan.
  ISBN 978-0-02-555210-4
  .
• Louis, W. R. (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization: Collected Essays. London: I. B. Tauris.
  ISBN 978-1-84511-309-4
  .
• Macmunn, G.; Falls, C. (1996) [1928]. Military Operations: Egypt and Palestine: From the Outbreak of War with Germany to June 1917. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. I (Imperial War Museum and Battery Press ed.). London: HMSO.
  ISBN 978-0-89839-241-8
  .
• Miller, C. (1974). Battle for the Bundu: The First World War in East Africa. New York: MacMillan.
  ISBN 978-0-02-584930-3
  .
• Moberly, F. J. (1995) [1931]. Military Operations Togoland and the Cameroons 1914–1916. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence (Imperial War Museum and Battery Press ed.). London: HMSO.
  ISBN 978-0-89839-235-7
  .
• Newbolt, H. (2003) [1928]. Naval Operations. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. IV (Imperial War Museum and Naval & Military Press ed.). London: Longmans.
  ISBN 978-1-84342-492-5
  .
• Omar, Mohamed (2001). The Scramble in the Horn of Africa: History of Somalia (1827–1977). Mogadishu: Somali Publications.
  OCLC 769997657
  .
• Paice, E. (2009) [2007]. Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa (Phoenix ed.). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
  ISBN 978-0-7538-2349-1
  .
• OCLC 139250
  .
• Skinner, H. T.; Stacke, H. FitzM. (1922). Principal Events 1914–1918. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence (online ed.). London:
  OCLC 17673086
  . Retrieved 7 February 2014.
• Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. Vol. I. New York: Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-926191-8
  .
• Tucker, S.; Roberts, P. M. (2006). World War I: A Student Encyclopaedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
  ISBN 978-1-8510-9879-8
  .
• Tucker, S.; Wood, L. M. (1996). The European Powers in the First World War: an Encyclopaedia (Illus. ed.). Taylor & Francis.
  ISBN 978-0-8153-0399-2
  .

Journals

• Chafer, Tony (2005). "Review: West African Challenge to Empire: Culture and History in the Volta-Bani Anticolonial War" (PDF). African Studies Quarterly. VIII (2).
  ISSN 2152-2448
  . Retrieved 12 November 2017.
• Fuglestad, F. (1973). "Les révoltes des Touaregs du Niger, 1916–1917" [The Revolts of the Tuareg of Niger, 1916–1917].
  ISSN 0008-0055
  .
• Quinn, F. (1973). "An African Reaction to World War I: The Beti of Cameroon". Cahiers d'études africaines. XIII (52). Paris: Éditions EHESS (France).
  ISSN 1777-5353
  .
• Yearwood, Peter J. (January 1998). "The expatriate firms and the Colonial economy of Nigeria in the First World War". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 26 (1): 49–71.
  ISSN 0308-6534
  .

Theses

• Njung, George Ndakwena (2016). Soldiers of their Own: Honor, Violence, Resistance and Conscription in Colonial Cameroon during the First World War (PDF) (PhD). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. pp. 1–417.
  ISBN 978-1-369-58934-4
  . Retrieved 12 March 2024.
• Oduntan, Oluwatoyin B. (2010). Elite Identity and Power: A Study of Social Change and Leadership among the Egba of Western Nigeria 1860–1950 (PDF) (PhD). Halifax, Nova Scotia: Dalhousie University. pp. 218–232.
  OCLC 812072776
  . Retrieved 12 November 2017.

Further reading

Books

• Africanus, Historicus (pseud.) [Bernd Kroemer] (2011). Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15: Eine Chronik der Ereignisse seit dem 30 Juni 1914 [The First World War in German South West Africa 1914/15: An Account of Events since June 30, 1914]. Vol. I. Windhoek: Glanz & Gloria Verlag.
  ISBN 978-99916-872-1-6
  .
• Africanus, Historicus (pseud.) [Bernd Kroemer] (2012). Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15: Naulila [The First World War in German South West Africa 1914/15: Naulila] (in German). Vol. II. Windhoek: Glanz & Gloria Verlag.
  ISBN 978-99916-872-3-0
  .
• Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume III, Kämpfe im Süden, Windhoek 2014, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-872-8-5
• Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume IV, Der Süden ist verloren, Windhoek 2016, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-2-6
• Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume V, Aufgabe der Küste, Windhoek 2016, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-4-0
• Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume VI, Aufgabe der Zentralregionen, Windhoek 2017, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-5-7
• Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume VII, Der Ring schließt sich, Windhoek 2018, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-7-1
• Africanus Historicus: Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1914/15, Volume VIII, Das Ende bei Khorab, Windhoek 2018, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-9-5
• Krömer/Krömer: Fotografische Erinnerungen an Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Volume III, Der 1. Weltkrieg in Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Windhoek 2018, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, ISBN 978-99916-909-8-8
• Clifford, H. C. (1920). The Gold Coast Regiment in the East African Campaign. London: Murray.
  OCLC 276295181
  . Retrieved 8 March 2014 – via Archive Foundation.
• Fendall, C. P. (1992) [1921]. The East African Force 1915–1919. London: H. F. & G. Witherby.
  ISBN 978-0-89839-174-9
  . Retrieved 25 February 2014 – via Archive Foundation.
• Lettow-Vorbeck, P. E. (1920). Meine Erinnerungen aus Ostafrika [My Reminiscences of East Africa] (in German) (Hurst and Blackett, London ed.). Leipzig: K. F. Koehler.
  OCLC 2961551
  . Retrieved 25 February 2014 – via Archive Foundation.
• MacPherson, W. G. (1921). History of the Great War based on Official Documents, Medical Services General History: Medical Services in the United Kingdom; in British Garrisons Overseas and During Operations Against Tsingtau, in Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa. Vol. I (1st ed.). London: HMSO.
  OCLC 769752656
  . Retrieved 27 February 2014 – via Archive Foundation.
• Northrup, D. (1988). Beyond the Bend in the River: African Labor in Eastern Zaire, 1865–1940. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  ISBN 978-0-89680-151-6
  . Retrieved 3 March 2014 – via Archive Foundation.
• O'Neill, H. C. (1918). The War in Africa 1914–1917 and in the Far East 1914 (1919 ed.). London: Longmans, Green.
  OCLC 786365389
  . Retrieved 25 February 2014 – via Archive Foundation.
• Paice, Edward (2007). Tip and Run: The untold tragedy of the Great War in Africa. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
  ISBN 9-780297-847090
  .
• Pélissier, R. (1977). Les guerres grises: Résistance et revoltes en Angola, 1845–1941 [The Grey Wars: Resistance and Revolts in Angola, 1845-–1941] (in French). Montamets/Orgeval: Éditions Pélissier.
  OCLC 4265731
  .
• Strachan, H. (2004). The First World War in Africa. New York: Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-925728-7
  .
• Waldeck, K. (2010). Gut und Blut für unsern Kaiser: Erlebnisse eines hessischen Unteroffiziers im Ersten Weltrkieg und im Kriegsgefangenenlager Aus in Südwestafrika [Good and Blood for our Emperor: Experiences of a Hessian Corporal in the First World War and in the Prisoner-of-War Camp in South West Africa] (in German). Windhoek: Glanz & Gloria Verlag.
  ISBN 978-99945-71-55-0
  .

Journals

• Rotberg, R. I. (March–April 2005). "John Chilembwe: Brief Life of an Anti-colonial Rebel: 1871?–1915". Harvard Magazine. Vol. 107, no. 4.
  ISSN 0095-2427. Archived from the original
  on 12 November 2006. Retrieved 2 March 2014 – via Archive Foundation.

Theses

• Anderson, R. (2001). World War I in East Africa, 1916–1918 (PhD). University of Glasgow.
  OCLC 498854094
  . Retrieved 2 July 2014.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to African theatre of World War I.

• Liberia from 1912–1920 Archived 2020-02-26 at the Wayback Machine
• Togoland 1914 Harry's Africa Web 2012
• Funkentelegrafie Und Deutsche Kolonien: Technik Als Mittel Imperialistischer Politik. Familie Friedenwald
• Schutzpolizei uniforms
• German Colonial Uniforms
• Brian Digre: Colonial Warfare and Occupation (Africa), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War