Western Belorussia
Western Belarus | |
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Western Belorussia or Western Belarus (Belarusian: Заходняя Беларусь, romanized: Zachodniaja Biełaruś; Polish: Zachodnia Białoruś; Russian: Западная Белоруссия, romanized: Zapadnaya Belorussiya) is a historical region of modern-day Belarus which belonged to the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period. For twenty years before the 1939 invasion of Poland, it was the northern part of the Polish Kresy macroregion.[1] Following the end of World War II in Europe, most of Western Belorussia was ceded to the Soviet Union by the Allies, while some of it, including Białystok, was given to the Polish People's Republic. Until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Western Belorussia formed the western part of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). Today, it constitutes the west of modern Belarus.[2]
Created by the USSR after the
Background
The territories of contemporary Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, and the Baltic states were a
The fate of the region was not settled for the following three and a half years. The
Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic in Exile
As soon as the Soviet-German peace treaty was signed in March 1918, the newly formed Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic laid territorial claims to Belarus based on areas specified in the Third Constituent Charter unilaterally as inhabited by the Belarusian majority.[citation needed] The same Rada charter also declared that the Treaty of Brest-Litowsk of March 1918 was invalid because it was signed by foreign governments partitioning territories that were not theirs.[12]
In February 1919, a joint
Byelorussian SSR. Thus, the almost unsolicited national state, which arose during the First World War, owed its existence directly to the alternative German, Russian and Polish attempts to secure control over the area. — Tania Raffass [13]
In the Second Constituent Charter, the Rada abolished the right to private ownership of land (paragraph 7) in line with the Communist Manifesto.[12] Meanwhile, by 1919, the Bolsheviks took control over large parts of Belarus and forced the Belarusian Rada into exile in Germany. The Bolsheviks formed the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia during the war with Poland on roughly the same territory claimed by the Belarusian Republic.[14]
The League of Nations ratified the new Polish-Soviet border.[1] The peace agreement remained in place throughout the interwar period. The borders established between the two countries remained in force until World War II and the 17 September 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland. On Joseph Stalin's insistence, the borders were redrawn in the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences.[1]
Second Polish Republic
"Despite Soviet efforts at sealing the border [with Poland], peasants – refugees from the BSSR – crossed into Poland in the tens of thousands, wrote
In his negotiations with Belarusian leaders in Vilnius, Józef Piłsudski rejected the call for Western Belorussian independence. In December 1919 the Rada was dissolved by Poland, while by early January 1920 a new body was formed, the Rada Najwyższa, without aspirations for independence, but with proposed cultural, social and educational functions.[19] Józef Piłsudski negotiated with the Western Belorussian leadership,[20] but eventually abandoned the ideas of Intermarium, his own proposed federation of partially self-governing states on the lands of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[21]
In the
Polonization
The Belarusian population of West Belarus faced active Polonization by the central Polish authorities. The policy pressured Belarusian schooling, discriminated against the Belarusian language, and imposed the Polish national identity on Roman Catholics in Belarus.
In January 1921, the
In 1928 there were 69 schools with Belarusian language in Western Belorussia; the attendance was minimal due in part to lower quality of instruction.[24] The first-ever textbook of Belarusian grammar was written only around 1918.[25] In 1939, over 90% of children in Poland attended school.[26] As elsewhere, the educational systems promoted Polish language there also.[27] Meanwhile, the Belarusian agitators deported to the USSR from Poland were put in prison by the Soviet NKVD as bourgeois nationalists.[28]
Most Polish inhabitants of the region supported the policy of cultural assimilation of Belarusians as proposed by Dmowski.[29] The polonization drive was inspired and influenced by Dmowski's Polish National Democracy, who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right of free national development.[30] Władysław Studnicki, an influential Polish official, stated that Poland's engagement in the East amounts to a much needed economic colonization.[31] Belarusian nationalist media was pressured and censored by the Polish authorities.[32]
Belarusians were divided along religious lines with roughly 70% being Orthodox and 30% Roman Catholic.[25] According to Russian sources, discrimination was targeting assimilation of Eastern Orthodox Belarusians.[33] The Polish church authorities promoted Polish in Orthodox services,[33] and initiated the creation of the Polish Orthodox Societies in four cities including Slonim, Białystok, Vawkavysk, and Novogrodek.[33] The Belarusian Roman Catholic priest Fr. Vincent Hadleŭski who promoted Belarusian in church,[33] and Belarusian national awareness, was under pressure by his Polish counterparts.[33] The Polish Catholic Church in Western Belorussia issued documents to priests about the usage of the Belarusian language rather than Polish language in Churches and Catholic Sunday Schools. The Warsaw-published instruction of the Polish Catholic Church from 1921 criticized priests preaching in Belarusian at the Catholic masses.[34]
Hramada
Compared to the (larger) Ukrainian minority living in Poland, Belarusians were much less politically aware and active. The largest Belarusian political organization was the Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union, also referred to as the Hramada. Hramada received logistical help from the Soviet Union and the Communist International and served as a cover for the radical and subversive Communist Party of Western Belorussia. It was therefore banned by the Polish authorities,[35][36] its leaders sentenced to various terms in prison and then deported to the USSR, where they were killed by the Soviet regime.[37]
Tensions between the increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities continued to grow, and the Belarusian minority was no exception. Likewise, according to
The Soviets also promoted the Soviet-controlled BSSR as formally autonomous to attract Belarusians living in Poland. This image was attractive to many Western Belorussian national leaders, and some of them, like Frantsishak Alyakhnovich or Uładzimir Žyłka emigrated from Poland to the BSSR, but very soon became victims of Soviet repression.
Soviet invasion of Poland, 1939
Soon after the Nazi-Soviet
On October 30, the People's Assembly session held in
The Soviet propaganda portrayed the Soviet invasion of Poland as the "reunion of Western Belorussia and Ukraine". Many ethnic Belarusians and Jews welcomed unification with the BSSR. Mostly wealthy groups of citizens changed their attitude after experiencing firsthand the style of the Soviet system.[46][47]
Deportations, arrests, and the reign of terror
The Soviets quickly began confiscating, nationalizing, and redistributing all private and state-owned property.
The Soviet–German War 1941–1945
The terms of the
In 1945, the
It was initially planned to move the capital of the BSSR to
Sovietization
The Belarusian political parties and the society in Western Belorussia often lacked information about repressions in the Soviet Union and was under a strong influence of Soviet propaganda.[33] Because of bad economic conditions and national discrimination of Belarusian in Poland, much of the population of Western Belorussia welcomed the annexation by the USSR.[33]
However, soon after the annexation of Western Belorussia by the Soviet Union, the Belarusian political activists had no illusions as to the friendliness of the Soviet regime.[33] The population grew less loyal as the economic conditions became even worse and as the new regime carried out mass repressions and deportations that targeted Belarusians as well as ethnic Poles.[33]
Immediately after the annexation, the Soviet authorities carried out the nationalization of agricultural land owned by large landowners in Western Belorussia.
Under the Soviet occupation, the Western Belorussian citizenry, particularly the Poles, faced a "filtration" procedure by the NKVD apparatus, which resulted in over 100,000 people being forcibly deported to eastern parts of the Soviet Union (e.g. Siberia) in the very first wave of expulsions.[60] In total, during the next two years some 1.7 million Polish citizens were put on freight trains and sent from the Polish Kresy to labour camps in the Gulag.[61]
Republic of Belarus
The majority of Poles live in the Western regions, including 230,000 in the
See also
Notes
- ^ a b c d Anna M. Cienciala (2004). "The Rebirth of Poland". History 557: Poland and Soviet Russia: 1917-1921. The Bolshevik Revolution, the Polish-Soviet War, and the Establishment of the Polish-soviet Frontier (Lecture Notes 11 B). University of Kansas. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 31 July 2016 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7656-0665-5.
- ISBN 978-5457636637.
- ^ Algimantas P. Gureckas, Lithuania's Boundaries and Territorial Claims between Lithuania and Neighboring States, New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law, New York Law School, New York, 1991, Vol.12, Numbers 1 & 2, p. 126-128.
- ^ Marjorie M. Whiteman, ed., Digest of International Law, Department of State Publication 7737, Washington, DC, 1964, Vol.3, p. 185-186 & 190.
- ISBN 978-0-521-19777-9.
- ^ ISBN 1412835011.
- ISBN 978-1465434906.
- ISBN 978-0822980957.
- ISBN 0786412402.
- ^ ISBN 1895571057.
- ^ a b Executive Committee; Ivonka J. Survilla (9 March 1918). "Council of BNR". Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic in Exile. First, Second, and Third Constituent Charter.
Mensk, 21 (8) February 1917 – 25 March 1918
- ISBN 978-0415688338.
- ^ Map of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Belarus on JiveBelarus.net website.
- ^ Rudling 2014, p. 206.
- ^ Żarnowski, p. 373.
- ^ Mironowicz 1999, p. 80.
- ISBN 978-0-521-63037-5.
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 34, "Białoruska reprezentacja narodowa stojąca na gruncie niepodległości była nie do zaakceptowania przez stronę polską. Rada została rozwiązana w grudniu 1919 r. przez Raczkiewicza na osobisty rozkaz Piłsudskiego. W jej miejsce powołano na początku 1920 r. Białoruską Radę Najwyższą aspirującą wprawdzie do roli reprezentacji narodowej, lecz bez podnoszenia problemu państwowości białoruskiej."
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 33
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 34
- ^ a b Mironowicz 1999, p. 94.
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, pp. 37–38, [Starosta] "ze stycznia 1921r. mówił o nastrojach miejscowego społeczeństwa: »zupełna rezygnacja i apatia ludności wiejskiej doprowadzonej do zupełnej nędzy przez bolszewików i wojsko polskie ciągłymi rekwizycjami.« Cały powiat pokrył się siecią szkół białoruskich ... zapewniał jednak, że szkoły białoruskie mają antypaństwowy charakter."
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 72, "W najpomyślniejszym dla szkolnictwa białoruskiego roku 1928 istniało w Polsce 69 szkół w których nauczano języka białoruskiego."
- ^ a b Rudling 2015, p. 120 (6 of 13 in PDF).
- ISBN 0199253390.
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, pp. 41, 53–54
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 93, W Białorusi Radzieckiej ... aresztowano byłych przywódców Hromady, którzy po opuszczeniu więzień w Polsce zostali przekazani władzom radzieckim w ramach wymiany więźniów politycznych.[224]
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 34, "Większość Polaków pragnęła łączyć plany nabytków terytorialnych Józefa Piłsudskiego z polityką asymilacyjną proponowaną przez Romana Dmowskiego."
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, pp. 4–5
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 12, "Zaangażowanie Polski na Białorusi i Ukrainie to ekspansja kolonialna, konieczna ze w zględów gospodarczych" (Studnicki).
- ^ Кореневская, О. (2003). "Особенности Западнобелорусского возрождения (на примере периодической печати)" (PDF). Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne (20): 69–89.[page needed]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Hielahajeu, Alaksandar (17 September 2014). "8 мифов о "воссоединении" Западной и Восточной Беларуси" [8 Myths about the "reunification" of Western Belorussia and Eastern Belorussia] (in Russian). Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- ^ Mironowicz 2007, p. 45
- ^ Andrzej Poczobut; Joanna Klimowicz (June 2011). "Białostocki ulubieniec Stalina" (PDF file, direct download 1.79 MB). Ogólnokrajowy tygodnik SZ «Związek Polaków na Białorusi» (Association of Poles of Belarus). Głos znad Niemna (Voice of the Neman weekly), Nr 7 (60). pp. 6–7 of current document. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
- ISBN 978-9004174481.
- ISBN 985-6425-20-4.
- ^ a b c d e Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, 2012, Intermarium: The Land between the Black and Baltic Seas, Transaction Publishers, pp. 81–82.
- ^ University of Stefan Wyszyński in Warsaw. pp. 17–. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
UMEA International Research Group. Abstracts of Presentations.
- ^ O.A. Gorlanov. "A breakdown of the chronology and the punishment, NKVD Order № 00485 (Polish operation) in Google translate". Retrieved April 26, 2011.
- ^ )
- ^ "Сборник документов «Государственные границы Беларуси»" Vol. 2, June 28, 2016 retrieved November 27, 2017.
- )
- ^ a b (in Belarusian)Уладзімір Снапкоўскі. Беларусь у геапалітыцы і дыпламатыі перыяду Другой Сусветнай вайны
- ^ Šapoka, Gintautas (21 December 2020). "Aprašykime mažai žinomus 1939–1940 m. Lietuvos istorijos įvykius". Alkas.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 3 November 2023.
- ^ a b Norman Davies, God's Playground (Polish edition), second tome, p.512-513.
- ^ (in Polish) Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939-1941)
- ^ Piotrowski 1998, p. 11
- ^ "Represje 1939–41. Aresztowani na Kresach Wschodnich" [Repressions 1939–1941. Arrested in the Eastern Borderlands]. Karta (in Polish). Ośrodek KARTA Center. Archived from the original on 2006-10-21.
- ^ Rieber 2000, pp. 14, 32–37
- ^ "Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll". AFP/Expatica. 2009.
- ^ "Baltarusijos lietuviai". Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 3 November 2023.
- ^ Marek Wierzbicki. "Polish-Belarusian relations under the Soviet occupation" [Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941)]. НА СТАРОНКАХ КАМУНІКАТУ. 20 (2003). Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne: 186–188. Archived from the original on 6 April 2009 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ ISBN 978-1782380481.
- ^ a b Alexey Litvin (Алексей Літвін), Participation of the local police in the extermination of Jews (Участие местной полиции в уничтожении евреев, в акциях против партизан и местного населения.); (in) Местная вспомогательная полиция на территории Беларуси, июль 1941 — июль 1944 гг. (The auxiliary police in Belarus, July 1941 - July 1944).
- ISBN 1403963711.
- )
- ISBN 1578064813.
- ^ (in Polish) Marek Wierzbicki, Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941). "Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne" (НА СТАРОНКАХ КАМУНІКАТУ, Biełaruski histaryczny zbornik) 20 (2003), p. 186–188. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
- ^ (in Belarusian) Сёньня — дзень ўзьяднаньня Заходняй і Усходняй Беларусі
- ^ A Forgotten Odyssey 2001 Lest We Forget Productions.
References
- Budreckis, Algirdas (1967). "ETNOGRAFINĖS LIETUVOS RYTINĖS IR PIETINĖS SIENOS". Karys.
- Hesch, Michael (1933). Letten, Litauer, Weissrussen (in German). Wien.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Mironowicz, Eugeniusz (1999). Białoruś (in Polish). Warszawa: Trio. ISBN 83-85660-82-8.
- Mironowicz, Eugeniusz (2007). Belarusians and Ukrainians in the policies of the Piłsudski camp [Białorusini i Ukraińcy w polityce obozu piłsudczykowskiego] (in Polish). Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersyteckie Trans Humana. 'Preface' (pp. 3–31), chpt. 1 (pp. 32–94), chpt. 2 (pp. 95–178), chpt. 3 (pp. 179–257) ISBN 978-83-89190-87-1.
- ISBN 0-7864-0371-3.
- Rieber, Alfred Joseph (2000). Forced Migration in Central and Eastern Europe: 1939–1950. London, New York: ISBN 0-7146-5132-X.
- ISBN 978-0822979586.
- S2CID 155122222.
- Żarnowski, Janusz (1973), Społeczeństwo Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej 1918-1939 (in Polish), Warszawa.