Latin Church
Catholic | |
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Orientation | Western Christianity |
Scripture | Bible |
Theology | Catholic theology |
Polity | Episcopal[1] |
Governance | Holy See |
Pope | Francis |
Full communion | Catholic Church |
Region | Mainly in Western Europe, Central Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, pockets of Africa, Madagascar, Oceania, with several episcopal conferences around the world |
Language | Ecclesiastical Latin |
Liturgy | Latin liturgical rites |
Headquarters | Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome, Italy |
Territory | Worldwide |
Origin | 1st century Rome, Roman Empire |
Separations |
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Members | 1.2 billion (2015)[2] |
Other name(s) |
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Official website | Holy See |
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The Latin Church (
The Latin Church is directly headed by the pope in his role as the
The Latin Church was in full communion with what is referred to as the
The Latin Church employs the Latin liturgical rites, which since the mid-20th century are very often translated into the vernacular. The predominant liturgical rite is the Roman Rite, elements of which have been practiced since the fourth century.[10] There exist and have existed since ancient times additional Latin liturgical rites and uses, including the currently used Mozarabic Rite in restricted use in Spain, the Ambrosian Rite in parts of Italy, and the Anglican Use in the personal ordinariates.
In the
Terminology
Name
The historical part of the Catholic Church in the West is called the Latin Church to distinguish itself from the Eastern Catholic Churches which are also under the pope's primacy. In historical context, before the East–West Schism in 1054 the Latin Church is sometimes referred to as the Western Church. Writers belonging to various Protestant denominations sometime use the term Western Church as an implicit claim to legitimacy.[clarification needed]
The term Latin Catholic refers to followers of the Latin liturgical rites, of which the Roman Rite is predominant. The Latin liturgical rites are contrasted with the liturgical rites of the Eastern Catholic Churches.
"Church" and "rite"
The 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches defines the use within that code of the words "church" and "rite".[11][12] In accordance with these definitions of usage within the code that governs the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Latin Church is one such group of Christian faithful united by a hierarchy and recognized by the supreme authority of the Catholic Church as a sui iuris particular Church. The "Latin Rite" is the whole of the patrimony of that distinct particular church, by which it manifests its own manner of living the faith, including its own liturgy, its theology, its spiritual practices and traditions and its canon law. A Catholic, as an individual person, is necessarily a member of a particular church. A person also inherits, or "is of",[13][14][15][16][17] a particular patrimony or rite. Since the rite has liturgical, theological, spiritual and disciplinary elements, a person is also to worship, to be catechized, to pray and to be governed according to a particular rite.
Particular churches that inherit and perpetuate a particular patrimony are identified by the metonymy "church" or "rite". Accordingly, "Rite" has been defined as "a division of the Christian Church using a distinctive liturgy",[18] or simply as "a Christian Church".[19] In this sense, "Rite" and "Church" are treated as synonymous, as in the glossary prepared by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and revised in 1999, which states that each "Eastern-rite (Oriental) Church ... is considered equal to the Latin rite within the Church".[20] The Second Vatican Council likewise stated that "it is the mind of the Catholic Church that each individual Church or Rite should retain its traditions whole and entire and likewise that it should adapt its way of life to the different needs of time and place"[21] and spoke of patriarchs and of "major archbishops, who rule the whole of some individual Church or Rite".[22] It thus used the word "Rite" as "a technical designation of what may now be called a particular Church".[23] "Church or rite" is also used as a single heading in the United States Library of Congress classification of works.[24]
History
Historically, the governing entity of the Latin Church (i.e. the
Following the
Membership
In the Catholic Church, in addition to the Latin Church—directly headed by the pope as Latin patriarch and notable within
The approximately 18 million Eastern Catholics represent a minority of Christians in communion with the pope,
Organisation
Liturgical patrimony
Several forms of the Latin rite have always existed, and were only slowly withdrawn, as a result of the coming together of the different parts of Europe. Before the Council there existed, side by side with the
Dominicanrite, and perhaps still other rites of which I am not aware.
Today, the most common Latin liturgical rites are the
Of other liturgical families, the main survivors are what is now referred to officially as the Hispano-Mozarabic Rite, still in restricted use in Spain; the Ambrosian Rite, centred geographically on the Archdiocese of Milan, in Italy, and much closer in form, though not specific content, to the Roman Rite; and the Carthusian Rite, practised within the strict Carthusian monastic Order, which also employs in general terms forms similar to the Roman Rite, but with a number of significant divergences which have adapted it to the distinctive way of life of the Carthusians.
There once existed what is referred to as the Gallican Rite, used in Gaulish or Frankish territories. This was a conglomeration of varying forms, not unlike the present Hispano-Mozarabic Rite in its general structures, but never strictly codified and which from at least the seventh century was gradually infiltrated, and then eventually for the most part replaced, by liturgical texts and forms which had their origin in the diocese of Rome. Other former "Rites" in past times practised in certain religious orders and important cities were in truth usually partial variants upon the Roman Rite and have almost entirely disappeared from current use, despite limited nostalgic efforts at revival of some of them and a certain indulgence by the Roman authorities.
Disciplinary patrimony
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Canon law of the Catholic Church |
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Canon law for the Latin Church is codified in the Code of Canon Law, of which there have been two codifications, the first promulgated by Pope Benedict XV in 1917 and the second by Pope John Paul II in 1983.[27]
In the Latin Church, the norm for administration of confirmation is that, except when in danger of death, the person to be confirmed should "have the use of reason, be suitably instructed, properly disposed, and able to renew the baptismal promises",[28] and "the administration of the Most Holy Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation so that they understand the mystery of Christ according to their capacity and are able to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion."[29] In the Eastern Churches these sacraments are usually administered immediately after baptism, even for an infant.[30]
At the present time,
Theology and philosophy
Augustinianism
In his youth he was drawn to Manichaeism and later to neoplatonism. After his baptism and conversion in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives.[35] Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made seminal contributions to the development of just war theory. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople[36] closely identified with Augustine's On the Trinity
When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City.[37] in his book On the city of God against the pagans, often called The City of God, Augustine declared its message to be spiritual rather than political. Christianity, he argued, should be concerned with the mystical, heavenly city, the New Jerusalem, rather than with earthly politics.
The City of God presents human history as a conflict between what Augustine calls the Earthly City (often colloquially referred to as the City of Man, but never by Augustine) and the City of God, a conflict that is destined to end in victory for the latter. The City of God is marked by people who forego earthly pleasure to dedicate themselves to the eternal truths of God, now revealed fully in the Christian faith. The Earthly City, on the other hand, consists of people who have immersed themselves in the cares and pleasures of the present, passing world.
For Augustine, the Logos "took on flesh" in Christ, in whom the logos was present as in no other man.[38][39][40] He strongly influenced Early Medieval Christian Philosophy.[41]
Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras,[42] Tertullian,[43] Clement of Alexandria and Basil of Caesarea,[44] Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion", and although he disapproved of an abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early abortions and later ones.[45] He acknowledged the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation of Exodus 21:22–23, which is considered as wrong translation of the word "harm" from the original Hebrew text as "form" in the Greek Septuagint and based in Aristotelian distinction "between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'", and did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed" fetus since he thought that it could not be said with certainty that the fetus had already received a soul.[45][46]
Augustine also used the term "Catholic" to distinguish the "true" church from heretical groups:
In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the
Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15–19), down to the present episcopate.
And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.
Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should. ...With you, there is none of these things to attract or keep me. ...No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion. ...For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church.
- — St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith.[47]
In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism, some ideas are still visible in his early writings.[48] His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. He was also influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), and Cicero (known for his teaching on argument).[49]
In the East, his teachings are more disputed, and were notably attacked by John Romanides.[50] But other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky.[51] The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque,[52] was rejected by the Orthodox Church[53] as heretical.[citation needed] Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination.[52] Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint, and has even had influence on some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably the Greek theologian Gregory Palamas.[54] In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 15 June.[52][55] Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example Paul of Tarsus has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."[56]
In his autobiographical book Milestones, Pope Benedict XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.
Scholasticism
Thomism
Saint
Aquinas emphasized that "Synderesis is said to be the law of our mind, because it is a habit containing the precepts of the natural law, which are the first principles of human actions."[65][66]
According to Aquinas "…all acts of virtue are prescribed by the natural law, since each one's reason naturally dictates to him to act virtuously. But if we speak of virtuous acts, considered in themselves, i.e., in their proper species, not all virtuous acts are prescribed by the natural law for many things are done virtuously to which nature does not incline at first; but that, through the inquiry of reason, have been found by men to be conducive to well living." Therefore, we must determine if we are speaking of virtuous acts as under the aspect of virtuous or as an act in its species.[67]
Thomas defined the four
Now the object of the theological virtues is God Himself, Who is the last end of all, as surpassing the knowledge of our reason. On the other hand, the object of the intellectual and moral virtues is something comprehensible to human reason. Wherefore the theological virtues are specifically distinct from the moral and intellectual virtues.[68]
Thomas Aquinas wrote: "[Greed] is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things."[69]
Aquinas also contributed to
Aquinas later expanded his argument to oppose any unfair earnings made in trade, basing the argument on the
- If someone would be greatly helped by something belonging to someone else, and the seller not similarly harmed by losing it, the seller must not sell for a higher price: because the usefulness that goes to the buyer comes not from the seller, but from the buyer's needy condition: no one ought to sell something that doesn't belong to him.[72]
- — Summa Theologiae, 2-2, q. 77, art. 1
Aquinas would therefore condemn practices such as raising the price of building supplies in the wake of a natural disaster. Increased demand caused by the destruction of existing buildings does not add to a seller's costs, so to take advantage of buyers' increased willingness to pay constituted a species of fraud in Aquinas's view.[73]
Five Ways
Thomas believed that the existence of God is self-evident in itself, but not to us. "Therefore I say that this proposition, "God exists", of itself is self-evident, for the predicate is the same as the subject ... Now because we do not know the essence of God, the proposition is not self-evident to us; but needs to be demonstrated by things that are more known to us, though less known in their nature—namely, by effects."[74]
Thomas believed that the existence of God can be demonstrated. Briefly in the
- Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though cannot cause their own motion. Since, as Thomas believed, there can be no infinite chain of causes of motion, there must be a First Mover not moved by anything else, and this is what everyone understands by God.
- Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can cause itself, and an infinite chain of causation is impossible, so there must be a First Cause, called God.
- Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our experience includes things certainly existing but apparently unnecessary. Not everything can be unnecessary, for then once there was nothing and there would still be nothing. Therefore, we are compelled to suppose something that exists necessarily, having this necessity only from itself; in fact itself the cause for other things to exist.
- Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things in the sense that some things are more hot, good, etc., there must be a superlative that is the truest and noblest thing, and so most fully existing. This then, we call God.
- Ordered tendencies of nature: A direction of actions to an end is noticed in all bodies following natural laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal under the guidance of one who is aware. This we call God.[75]
Concerning the nature of God, Thomas felt the best approach, commonly called the
- God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.[76]
- God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.[77] Thomas defined God as the Ipse Actus Essendi subsistens, subsisting act of being.[78]
- God is infinite. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.[79]
- God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.[80]
- God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Thomas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."[81]
Impact
Aquinas shifted Scholasticism away from neoplatonism and towards Aristotle. The ensuing school of thought, through its influence on Latin Christianity and the ethics of the Catholic school, is one of the most influential philosophies of all time, also significant due to the number of people living by its teachings.
In theology, his Summa Theologica is one of the most influential documents in medieval theology and continued into the 20th century to be the central point of reference for the philosophy and theology of Latin Christianity. In the 1914 encyclical Doctoris Angelici,[82] Pope Pius X cautioned that the teachings of the Catholic Church cannot be understood without the basic philosophical underpinnings of Aquinas' major theses:
The capital theses in the philosophy of St. Thomas are not to be placed in the category of opinions capable of being debated one way or another, but are to be considered as the foundations upon which the whole science of natural and divine things is based; if such principles are once removed or in any way impaired, it must necessarily follow that students of the sacred sciences will ultimately fail to perceive so much as the meaning of the words in which the dogmas of divine revelation are proposed by the magistracy of the Church.[83]
The Second Vatican Council described Aquinas' system as the "Perennial Philosophy".[84]
Actus purus
Actus purus is the absolute perfection of God. According to Scholasticism, created beings have potentiality—that is not actuality, imperfections as well as perfection. Only God is simultaneously all that He can be, infinitely real and infinitely perfect: 'I am who I am' (Exodus 3:14). His attributes or His operations are really identical with His essence, and His essence necessitates His existence.
Lack of essence-energies distinction
Later, the Eastern Orthodox ascetic and archbishop of Thessaloniki, (Saint)
Historically Latin Christianity has tended to reject Palamism, especially the essence-energies distinction, some times characterizing it as a heretical introduction of an unacceptable division in the Trinity and suggestive of
The rejection of Palamism by the West and by those in the East who favoured union with the West (the "Latinophrones"), actually contributed to its acceptance in the East, according to Martin Jugie, who adds: "Very soon Latinism and Antipalamism, in the minds of many, would come to be seen as one and the same thing".[92]
Filioque
The phrase Filioque first appears as an anti-Arian[94][95] interpolation in the Creed at the Third Council of Toledo (589), at which Visigothic Spain renounced Arianism, accepting Catholic Christianity. The addition was confirmed by subsequent local councils in Toledo and soon spread throughout the West, not only in Spain but also in the kingdom of the Franks, who had adopted the Catholic faith in 496,[96] and in England, where the Council of Hatfield imposed it in 680 as a response to Monothelitism.[97] However, it was not adopted in Rome.
In the late 6th century, some Latin churches added the words "and from the Son" (Filioque) to the description of the procession of the Holy Spirit, in what many Eastern Orthodox Christians have at a later stage argued is a violation of Canon VII of the Council of Ephesus, since the words were not included in the text by either the First Council of Nicaea or that of Constantinople.[98] This was incorporated into the liturgical practice of Rome in 1014,[99] but was rejected by Eastern Christianity.
Whether that term Filioque is included, as well as how it is translated and understood, can have important implications for how one understands the doctrine of the Trinity, which is central to the majority of Christian churches. For some, the term implies a serious underestimation of God the Father's role in the Trinity; for others, denial of what it expresses implies a serious underestimation of the role of God the Son in the Trinity.
The Filioque phrase has been included in the Creed throughout all the Latin liturgical rites except where Greek is used in the liturgy,[100][101] although it was never adopted by Eastern Catholic Churches.[102]
Purgatory
Perhaps the most peculiar doctrine of Latin Christianity is purgatory, about which Latin Christianity holds that "all who die in God's grace and friendship but still imperfectly purified" undergo the process of purification which the Catholic Church calls purgatory, "so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven". It has formulated this doctrine by reference to biblical verses that speak of purifying fire (1 Corinthians 3:15 and 1 Peter 1:7) and to the mention by Jesus of forgiveness in the age to come (Matthew 12:32). It bases its teaching also on the practice of praying for the dead in use within the church ever since the church began and which is mentioned even earlier in 2 Macc 12:46.[103][104]
The idea of purgatory has roots that date back into antiquity. A sort of proto-purgatory called the "celestial
Perhaps under the influence of Hellenistic thought, the intermediate state entered Jewish religious thought in the last centuries before Christ. In Maccabees, we find the practice of prayer for the dead with a view to their after life purification,
Specific examples of belief in a purification after death and of the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the
among others.As for certain lesser faults, we must believe that, before the Final Judgment, there is a purifying fire. He who is truth says that whoever utters blasphemy against the Holy Spirit will be pardoned neither in this age nor in the
age to come. From this sentence we understand that certain offenses can be forgiven in this age, but certain others in the age to come.[121]
Speculations and imaginings about purgatory
Some Catholic saints and theologians have had sometimes conflicting ideas about purgatory beyond those adopted by the Catholic Church, reflecting or contributing to the popular image, which includes the notions of purification by actual fire, in a determined place and for a precise length of time.
In Theological Studies, John E. Thiel argued that "purgatory virtually disappeared from Catholic belief and practice since Vatican II" because it has been based on "a competitive spirituality, gravitating around the religious vocation of ascetics from the late Middle Ages". "The birth of purgatory negotiated the eschatological anxiety of the laity. [...] In a manner similar to the ascetic's lifelong lengthening of the temporal field of competition with the martyr, belief in purgatory lengthened the layperson's temporal field of competition with the ascetic."[124]
The speculations and popular imaginings that, especially in late medieval times, were common in the Western or Latin Church have not necessarily found acceptance in the
Mary Magdalene of Bethany
In the medieval Western tradition, Mary of Bethany the sister of Lazarus was identified as Mary Magdalene perhaps in large part because of a homily given by Pope Gregory the Great in which he taught about several women in the New Testament as though they were the same person. This led to a conflation of Mary of Bethany with Mary Magdalene as well as with another woman (besides Mary of Bethany who anointed Jesus), the woman caught in adultery. Eastern Christianity never adopted this identification. In his article in the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia, Hugh Pope stated, "The Greek Fathers, as a whole, distinguish the three persons: the 'sinner' of Luke 7:36–50; the sister of Martha and Lazarus, Luke 10:38–42 and John 11; and Mary Magdalen.[127]
French scholar Victor Saxer dates the identification of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute, and as Mary of Bethany, to a sermon by Pope Gregory the Great on September 21, AD 591, where he seemed to combine the actions of three women mentioned in the New Testament and also identified an unnamed woman as Mary Magdalene. In another sermon, Gregory specifically identified Mary Magdalene as the sister of Martha mentioned in Luke 10.[128] But according to a view expressed more recently by theologian Jane Schaberg, Gregory only put the final touch to a legend that already existed before him.[129]
Latin Christianity's identification of Mary Magdalene and Mary of Bethany was reflected in the arrangement of the General Roman Calendar until this was altered in 1969,[130] reflecting the fact that by then the common interpretation in the Catholic Church was that Mary of Bethany, Mary Magdalene and the sinful woman who anointed the feet of Jesus were three distinct women.[131]
Original sin
The Catechism of the Catholic Church says:
By his sin Adam, as the first man, lost the original holiness and justice he had received from God, not only for himself but for all humans.
Adam and Eve transmitted to their descendants human nature wounded by their own first sin and hence deprived of original holiness and justice; this deprivation is called "original sin".
As a result of original sin, human nature is weakened in its powers, subject to ignorance, suffering and the domination of death, and inclined to sin (this inclination is called "concupiscence").[132]
The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by St
- Death and Suffering: "One man has transmitted to the whole human race not only the death of the body, which is the punishment of sin, but even sin itself, which is the death of the soul."
- Concupiscence or Inclination to sin. Baptism erases original sin but the inclination to sin remains.
- The absence of sanctifying grace in the new-born child is also an effect of the first sin, for Adam, having received holiness and justice from God, lost it not only for himself but also for us. Baptism confers original sanctifying grace, lost through the Adam's sin, thus eliminating original sin and any personal sin.[146]
Eastern Catholics and Eastern Christianity, in general, do not have the same theology of the Fall and original sin as Latin Catholics.[147] But since Vatican II there has been development in Catholic thinking. Some warn against taking Genesis 3 too literally. They take into account that "God had the church in mind before the foundation of the world" (as in Ephesians 1:4).[148] as also in 2 Timothy 1:9: ". . . his own purpose and grace, which was given us in Christ Jesus before the world began."[149] And Pope Benedict XVI in his book In the Beginning ... referred to the term "original sin" as "misleading and unprecise".[150] Benedict does not require a literal interpretation of Genesis, or of the origin or evil, but writes: "How was this possible, how did it happen? This remains obscure. ...Evil remains mysterious. It has been presented in great images, as does chapter 3 of Genesis, with the vision of two trees, of the serpent, of sinful man."[151][152]
Immaculate Conception
The
It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX was not explicitly noted before the 12th century. It is also agreed that "no direct or categorical and stringent proof of the dogma can be brought forward from
Bernard of Clairvaux in the 12th century raised the question of the Immaculate Conception. A feast of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin had already begun to be celebrated in some churches of the West. St Bernard blames the canons of the metropolitan church of Lyon for instituting such a festival without the permission of the Holy See. In doing so, he takes occasion to repudiate altogether the view that the conception of Mary was sinless, calling it a "novelty". Some doubt, however, whether he was using the term "conception" in the same sense in which it is used in the definition of Pope Pius IX. Bernard would seem to have been speaking of conception in the active sense of the mother's cooperation, for in his argument he says: "How can there be absence of sin where there is concupiscence (libido)?" and stronger expressions follow, which could be interpreted to indicate that he was speaking of the mother and not of the child. Yet, Bernard also decries those who support the feast for trying to "add to the glories of Mary", which proves he was indeed talking about Mary.[155]
The theological underpinnings of Immaculate Conception had been the subject of debate during the
Duns Scotus
The
The arguments of Scotus, combined with a better acquaintance with the language of the early Fathers, gradually prevailed in the schools of the Western Church. In 1387 the university of Paris strongly condemned the opposite view.[155]
Scotus's arguments remained controversial, however, particularly among the Dominicans, who were willing enough to celebrate Mary's sanctificatio (being made free from sin) but, following the Dominican Thomas Aquinas' arguments, continued to insist that her sanctification could not have occurred until after her conception.[154]
Scotus pointed out that Mary's Immaculate Conception enhances Jesus' redemptive work.[163]
Scotus's argument appears in Pope Pius IX's 1854 declaration of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, "at the first moment of Her conception, Mary was preserved free from the stain of original sin, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ."[164] Scotus's position was hailed as "a correct expression of the faith of the Apostles."[164]
Dogmatically defined
The complete defined dogma of the Immaculate Conception states:
We declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful.[165] Declaramus, pronuntiamus et definimus doctrinam, quae tenet, beatissimam Virginem Mariam in primo instanti suae Conceptionis fuisse singulari omnipotentis Dei gratia et privilegio, intuitu meritorum Christi lesu Salvatoris humani generis, ab omni originalis culpae labe praeservatam immunem, esse a Deo revelatam, atque idcirco ab omnibus fidelibus firmiter constanterque credendam. Quapropter si qui secus ac a Nobis.
Pope Pius IX explicitly affirmed that Mary was redeemed in a manner more sublime. He stated that Mary, rather than being cleansed after sin, was completely prevented from contracting original sin in view of the foreseen merits of Jesus Christ, the Savior of the human race. In Luke 1:47, Mary proclaims: "My spirit has rejoiced in God my Saviour." This is referred to as Mary's pre-redemption by Christ. Since the
The definition concerns original sin only, and it makes no declaration about the church's belief that the Blessed Virgin was sinless in the sense of freedom from actual or personal sin.
Eastern Catholics and Eastern Christianity, in general, believe that Mary was
Assumption of Mary
The
On 1 November 1950, in the Apostolic Constitution
By the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and by our own authority, we pronounce, declare, and define it to be a divinely revealed dogma: that the Immaculate Mother of God, the ever Virgin Mary, having completed the course of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory.[168]
In Pius XII's dogmatic statement, the phrase "having completed the course of her earthly life", leaves open the question of whether the Virgin Mary died before her assumption or not. Mary's assumption is said to have been a divine gift to her as the "Mother of God". Ludwig Ott's view is that, as Mary completed her life as a shining example to the human race, the perspective of the gift of assumption is offered to the whole human race.[169]
Ludwig Ott writes in his book Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma that "the fact of her death is almost generally accepted by the Fathers and Theologians, and is expressly affirmed in the Liturgy of the Church", to which he adds a number of helpful citations. He concludes: "for Mary, death, in consequence of her freedom from original sin and from personal sin, was not a consequence of punishment of sin. However, it seems fitting that Mary's body, which was by nature mortal, should be, in conformity with that of her Divine Son, subject to the general law of death".[170]
The point of her bodily death has not been infallibly defined by any pope. Many Catholics believe that she did not die at all, but was assumed directly into Heaven. The dogmatic definition within the Apostolic Constitution Munificentissimus Deus which, according to Roman Catholic dogma, infallibly proclaims the doctrine of the Assumption leaves open the question of whether, in connection with her departure, Mary underwent bodily death. It does not dogmatically define the point one way or the other, as shown by the words "having completed the course of her earthly life".[171]
Before the dogmatic definition in
Assumption vs. Dormition
The Western Feast of the Assumption is celebrated on 15 August, and the Eastern Orthodox and
Orthodox tradition is clear and unwavering in regard to the central point [of the Dormition]: the Holy Virgin underwent, as did her Son, a physical death, but her body—like His—was afterwards raised from the dead and she was taken up into heaven, in her body as well as in her soul. She has passed beyond death and judgement, and lives wholly in the Age to Come. The Resurrection of the Body ... has in her case been anticipated and is already an accomplished fact. That does not mean, however, that she is dissociated from the rest of humanity and placed in a wholly different category: for we all hope to share one day in that same glory of the Resurrection of the Body which she enjoys even now.[174]
Many Catholics also believe that Mary first died before being assumed, but they believe that she was miraculously resurrected before being assumed. Others believe she was assumed bodily into Heaven without first dying.[175][176] Either understanding may be legitimately held by Catholics, with Eastern Catholics observing the Feast as the Dormition.
Many theologians note by way of comparison that in the Catholic Church, the Assumption is dogmatically defined, while in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the Dormition is less dogmatically than liturgically and mystically defined. Such differences spring from a larger pattern in the two traditions, wherein Catholic teachings are often dogmatically and authoritatively defined—in part because of the more centralized structure of the Catholic Church—while in Eastern Orthodoxy, many doctrines are less authoritative.[177]
Ancient of Days
Ancient of Days is a name for God that appears in the Book of Daniel.
In an early Venetian school Coronation of the Virgin by Giovanni d'Alemagna and Antonio Vivarini, (c. 1443), God the Father is shown in the representation consistently used by other artists later, namely as a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the description of the Ancient of Days in the Old Testament, the nearest approach to a physical description of God in the Old Testament:[178]
... the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. (Daniel 7:9)
St Thomas Aquinas recalls that some bring forward the objection that the Ancient of Days matches the person of the Father, without necessarily agreeing with this statement himself.[179]
By the twelfth century depictions of a figure of God the Father, essentially based on the
Artistic depictions of God the Father were uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common depictions of the
The depiction remains rare and often controversial in Eastern Orthodox art. In Eastern Orthodox Church hymns and
Social and cultural issues
Sexual abuse cases
From the 1990s, the issue of
In response to the scandal, formal procedures have been established to help prevent abuse, encourage the reporting of any abuse that occurs, and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing victims have disputed their effectiveness.[186] In 2014, Pope Francis instituted the Pontifical Commission for the Protection of Minors for the safeguarding of minors.[187]
See also
- Early African church
- Counter-Reformation
- Latin Church in the Middle East
- Latin liturgical rites
- James the Great#Spain
- Paul the Apostle#Journey from Rome to Spain
- Saint Peter#Connection to Rome
- General Roman Calendar
- East–West Schism
Notes
- ^ The term Roman Catholic Church is also used to refer to the Catholic Church as a whole, especially in a non-Catholic context, while also occasionally used in reference to the Latin Church vis-à-vis the Eastern Catholic Churches. "Do you know differences between Roman, Byzantine Catholic Churches?". The Compass. 2011-11-30. Archived from the original on 2023-04-16. Retrieved 2021-04-08.
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When other Christians become Catholic: the individual becomes Eastern Catholic, not Roman Catholic
- ^ Fortescue, Adrian (1910). "Latin Church"". Catholic Encyclopedia.
no doubt, by a further extension Roman Church may be used as equivalent to Latin Church for the patriarchate
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When other Christians become Catholic: the individual becomes Eastern Catholic, not Roman Catholic
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- ^ Fortescue, Adrian (1914). Ward, Bernard; Thurston, Herbert (eds.). The Mass: A Study of the Roman Liturgy. The Westminster Library (New ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co. p. 167.
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- ^ Kappes, Christiaan (2015-09-30). "Gregory Palamas' Use of Augustine's De Trinitate for Original Sin and its Application to the Theotokos & Scholarius' Palamitico-Augustinianism of the Immaculate Conception (Stockholm 28.VI.15)" (Document). Stockholm University Press.
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- ^ Grant, Edward, and Emeritus Edward Grant. The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional and intellectual contexts. Cambridge University Press, 1996, 23–28
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- ^ Vaughan, Roger Bede (1871). The Life and Labours of St. Thomas of Aquin. Vol. 1. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Conway, Placid (1911). Saint Thomas Aquinas. Friar Saints. Vol. 1. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
- Tolomeo da Lucca writes in Historia Ecclesiastica (1317): "This man is supreme among modern teachers of philosophy and theology, and indeed in every subject. And such is the common view and opinion, so that nowadays in the University of Paristhey call him the Doctor Communis because of the outstanding clarity of his teaching." Historia Eccles. xxiii, c. 9.
- ^ Langston, Douglas (5 February 2015). "Medieval Theories of Conscience". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2015 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
- ^ Summa Theologica, First Part of the Second Part, Question 94 Reply Obj. 2
- ^ Summa Question 94, A.3
- ^ "Summa, Q62a2". Ccel.org. Retrieved 2012-02-02.
- ^ Summa Theologica, Second Part of the Second Part, Question 118, Article 1. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
- ^ Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica. "Of Cheating, Which Is Committed in Buying and Selling". Translated by The Fathers of the English Dominican Province [1] Retrieved 19 June 2012
- ^ Barry Gordon (1987). "Aquinas, St Thomas (1225–1274)", v. 1, p. 100
- ^ Si vero aliquis multum iuvetur ex re alterius quam accepit, ille vero qui vendidit non damnificatur carendo re illa, non debet eam supervendere. Quia utilitas quae alteri accrescit non est ex vendente, sed ex conditione ementis, nullus autem debet vendere alteri quod non est suum. . .
- ^ Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 2ª-2ae q. 77 pr.: "Deinde considerandum est de peccatis quae sunt circa voluntarias commutationes. Et primo, de fraudulentia quae committitur in emptionibus et venditionibus ..."
- ^ "Summa Theologiae: The existence of God (Prima Pars, Q. 2)". New Advent.
- ^ Summa of Theology I, q.2, The Five Ways Philosophers Have Proven God's Existence
- ^ Kreeft, pp. 74–77.
- ^ Kreeft, pp. 86–87.
- Actus Essendi. See also Actus Essendi and the Habit of the First Principle in Thomas Aquinas (New York: Einsiedler Press, 2019); and online resources: Actus Essendi Electronic Journal.
- ^ Kreeft, pp. 97–99.
- ^ Kreeft, p. 105.
- ^ Kreeft, pp. 111–12.
- ^ "Doctoris Angelici". Archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Retrieved 4 November 2009. Accessed 25 October 2012
- ^ Pope Pius X, Doctoris Angelici, 29 June 1914.
- ^ Second Vatican Council, Optatam Totius (28 October 1965) 15.
- ISBN 978-0809124473, although that attitude has never been universally prevalent in the Catholic Church and has been even more widely criticised in the catholic theology for the last century (see section 3 of this article). Retrieved on 12 September 2014.
- ^ "No doubt the leaders of the party held aloof from these vulgar practices of the more ignorant monks, but on the other hand they scattered broadcast perilous theological theories. Palamas taught that by asceticism one could attain a corporal, i.e. a sense view, or perception, of the Divinity. He also held that in God there was a real distinction between the Divine Essence and Its attributes, and he identified grace as one of the Divine propria making it something uncreated and infinite. These monstrous errors were denounced by the Calabrian Barlaam, by Nicephorus Gregoras, and by Acthyndinus. The conflict began in 1338 and ended only in 1368, with the solemn canonization of Palamas and the official recognition of his heresies. He was declared the 'holy doctor' and 'one of the greatest among the Fathers of the Church', and his writings were proclaimed 'the infallible guide of the Christian Faith'. Thirty years of incessant controversy and discordant councils ended with a resurrection of polytheism" Simon Vailhé (1909). "Greek Church". Catholic Encyclopedia, New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Fortescue, Adrian (1910), Hesychasm, vol. VII, New York: Robert Appleton Company, retrieved 2008-02-03
- ^ "No doubt the leaders of the party held aloof from these vulgar practices of the more ignorant monks, but on the other hand they scattered broadcast perilous theological theories. Palamas taught that by asceticism one could attain a corporal, i.e. a sense view, or perception, of the Divinity. He also held that in God there was a real distinction between the Divine Essence and Its attributes, and he identified grace as one of the Divine propria making it something uncreated and infinite. These monstrous errors were denounced by the Calabrian Barlaam, by Nicephorus Gregoras, and by Acthyndinus. The conflict began in 1338 and ended only in 1368, with the solemn canonization of Palamas and the official recognition of his heresies. He was declared the 'holy doctor' and 'one of the greatest among the Fathers of the Church', and his writings were proclaimed 'the infallible guide of the Christian Faith'. Thirty years of incessant controversy and discordant councils ended with a resurrection of polytheism" (Simon Vailhé, "Greek Church" in Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909)
- ISBN 0-8386-4111-3), pp. 243–244
- ^ The Search For Sacred Quietude (melkite.org)
- ^ Second Sunday of the Great Fast Gregory Palamas (sspp.ca)
- ^ "Martin Jugie, The Palamite Controversy". 13 June 2009. Retrieved 2010-12-27.
- ISBN 978-0-80280980-3.
- ^ Dale T. Irvin, Scott Sunquist, History of the World Christian Movement (2001), Volume 1, p. 340
- ^ Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy (2005), p, 487
- ^ The Conversion of Clovis
- ISBN 978-1-4051-8539-4), vol. 1, p. 251
- ^ For a different view, see e.g. Excursus on the Words πίστιν ἑτέραν
- ^ "Greek and Latin Traditions on Holy Spirit". Ewtn.com.
- ^ Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity: The Greek and the Latin Traditions regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit and same document on another site
- ^ Ρωμαϊκό Λειτουργικό (Roman Missal), Συνοδική Επιτροπή για τη θεία Λατρεία 2005, I, p. 347
- ^ Article 1 of the Treaty of Brest
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Final Purification, or Purgatory"
- ^ "Pius IV Council of Trent-25". www.ewtn.com.
- ^ Adrian Mihai, "L'Hadès céleste. Histoire du purgatoire dans l'Antiquité"(Garnier: 2015), pp.185–188
- ^ cf. 2 Maccabees 12:42–44
- ^ Purgatory in Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1032
- ^ Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27.
- Against Heresies5.31.2, in The Ante-Nicene Fathers eds. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979) 1:560 cf. 5.36.2 / 1:567; cf. George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 107
- ^ Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27; cf. Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London, Williams & Norgate, 1995) p. 337; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 6:14
- ^ Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984) p. 53; cf. Leviticus 10:1–2, Deuteronomy 32:22, 1Corinthians 3:10–15
- ^ Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London: Williams & Norgate, 1905) p. 377. read online.
- ^ Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984) pp. 55–57; cf. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 7:6 and 5:14
- ^ Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27; cf. Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London, Williams & Norgate, 1995) p. 296 n. 1; George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912); Tertullian De Anima
- ^ a b A. J. Visser, "A Bird's-Eye View of Ancient Christian Eschatology", in Numen (1967) p. 13
- ^ Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma vol. 2, trans. Neil Buchanan (London: Williams & Norgate, 1905) p. 296 n. 1. read online; cf. Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory (University of Chicago Press, 1984) pp. 58–59
- ^ Cyprian, Letters 51:20; Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27
- ^ John Chrysostom, Homily on First Corinthians 41:5; Homily on Philippians 3:9–10; Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27
- ^ Augustine, Sermons 159:1, 172:2; City of God 21:13; Handbook on Faith, Hope, and Charity 18:69, 29:109; Confessions 2.27; Gerald O' Collins and Mario Farrugia, Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 36; Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27
- ^ Gregory the Great, Dialogues 4, 39: PL 77, 396; cf. Matthew 12:31
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- S2CID 170574571. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2020-11-08. Retrieved 2020-07-05.
- ^ "First Speech by Mark, Archbishop of Ephesus, on Purifying Fire" in Patrologia Orientalis, vol. 15, pp. 40–41
- ^ "Treaty of Brest, Article 5".
- ^ Pope, H. (1910). St. Mary Magdalen, in The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ISBN 978-0-691-08987-4.
- ^ Rivera, John (2003-04-18). "John Rivera, "Restoring Mary Magdalene" in "Worldwide Religious News", The Baltimore Sun, April 18, 2003". Wwrn.org. Retrieved 2018-04-05.
- ISBN 978-90-0412654-1), p. 447
- ISBN 978-1-58979594-5), pp. 79–81
- ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – IntraText". Vatican.va. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
- ^ "In the person of the first Adam we offend God, disobeying His precept" (Haeres., V, xvi, 3).
- ^ Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 892.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
- ^ Peter Nathan. "The Original View of Original Sin". Vision.org. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
- ^ "Original Sin Explained and Defended: Reply to an Assemblies of God Pastor". Philvaz.com. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
- ^ Preamble and Articles of Faith Archived 20 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine – V. Sin, Original and Personal – Church of the Nazarene. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
- ^ Are Babies Born with Sin? Archived 21 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Topical Bible Studies. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
- ^ Original Sin – Psalm 51:5 – Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
- ISBN 9783161557538.
- ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jansenius and Jansenism". Newadvent.org. 1 October 1910. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 405.
- ^ Council of Trent (Sess. VI, cap. i and v).
- ^ De conceptu virginali, xxvi.
- ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Original Sin". New Advent. Retrieved 1 January 2018.
- ^ a b "Original Sin", From East to West.
- ^ Ritenbaugh, John W. (May 31, 1998). "The Holy Spirit and the Trinity (Part One) (Sermon)". Bible Tools. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
- ^ Morris, Henry M. (Dec 6, 2018). "Before the World Began". The Institute for Creation Research. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
- ^ "Cardinal" Joseph Ratzinger, In the Beginning, 1986, p. 72.
- ^ "General Audience of 3 December 2008: Saint Paul (15). The Apostle's teaching on the relation between Adam and Christ | BENEDICT XVI". The Holy See. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
- ^ "Pope ponders original sin, speaks about modern desire for change". Catholic News Agency. Dec 3, 2008. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
- ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – "Conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary"". The Holy See.
- ^ a b Frederick Holweck, "Immaculate Conception" in The Catholic Encyclopedia 1910
- ^ a b c d e public domain: Hedley, John (1911). "Immaculate Conception, The". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 334–335. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ Z. J. Kosztolnyik, Some Hungarian Theologians in the Late Renaissance, Church History. Volume: 57. Issue: 1, 1988. Z. J. Kosztolnyik, Pelbartus of Temesvar: a Franciscan Preacher and Writer of the Late Middle Ages in Hungary, Vivarium, 5/1967. Kenan B. Osborne, O.F.M., The History of Franciscan Theology, The Franciscan Institute St. Bonaventure, New York, 1994. Franklin H. Littell (ed.), Reformation Studies, John Knox Press, Richmond, Virginia, 1962.
- ^ Edward Bouverie Pusey, First letter to the Very Rev. J. H. Newman (J. Parker & Co. 1869), p. 379
- ISBN 0-85244-380-3page 38
- ISBN 1-57958-282-6page 348
- ISBN 978-1-57918-355-4, pp. 642–644
- ISBN 0-415-18914-4, p. 5
- ISBN 0-86012-006-6, pp. 896–898
- ^ Foley OFM, Leonard. "Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception", Saint of the Day, (revised by Pat McCloskey OFM), AmericanCatholic.org
- ^ a b "The Life of Blessed John Duns Scotus". EWTN.
- ^ "INEFFABILIS DEUS (The Immaculate Conception) Pope Pius IX". ewtn.com.
- ^ Council of Orange II, Canon 19 Archived 2009-01-13 at the Wayback Machine "That no one is saved except by God's mercy. Even if human nature remained in that integrity in which it was formed, it would in no way save itself without the help of its Creator; therefore, since without the grace of God it cannot guard the health which it received, how without the grace of God will it be able to recover what it has lost?"
- ISBN 0-7220-7425-5, pp. 134–138
- ^ Apostolic Constitution Munificentissimus Deus item 44 at the Vatican web site Archived 4 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ludwig Ott's Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, pp. 250 ff.
- ISBN 0-89555-009-1
- ^ "Apostolic Constitution Munificentissimus Deus, no 44". Vatican.va. Archived from the original on 4 September 2013. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-882972-06-7pp. 75–78
- ISBN 9781579183554edited by M. Miravalle, pp. 328–350
- ^ Bishop Kallistos (Ware) of Diokleia, in: Festal Menaion [London: Faber and Faber, 1969], p. 64.
- ISBN 1-4022-0806-5p. 64
- ^ Shoemaker 2006, p. 201
- ^ See "Three Sermons on the Dormition of the Virgin" by John of Damascus, from the Medieval Sourcebook
- ^ Bigham Chapter 7
- ^ Summa Theologica III.59.1 obj 2, ad 2
- ISBN 0195014324p. 92
- ^ Bigham, 73–76
- S2CID 170245894.
- ^ Cartlidge and Elliott, 69–72
- ^ The manuscripts that include an image of the Ancient of Days are discussed in the unpublished dissertation by Gretchen Kreahling McKay, "Imaging the Divine: A Study of the Representations of the Ancient of Days in Byzantine Manuscripts," University of Virginia, 1997.
- ^ The Tome of the Great Council of Moscow (1666–1667 A.D.), Ch. 2, 43–45; tr. Hierodeacon Lev Puhalo, Canadian Orthodox Missionary Journal
- ^ David Willey (15 July 2010). "Vatican 'speeds up' abuse cases". BBC News. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
- ^ "Comunicato della Sala Stampa: Istituzione della Pontificia Commissione per la Tutela dei Minori". Holy See Press Office. 22 March 2014. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
External links
- Official website of the Holy See
- Latin Church in the Catholic Encyclopedia