Western Chalukya Empire

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This article is about the Western Chalukya Empire. For other dynasties, see Chalukya (disambiguation).

Western Chalukya Empire
Kalyani Chalukya
975–1184
Kannada
Sanskrit
Religion
Hinduism
Jainism
GovernmentMonarchy
King 
• 957 – 997
Tailapa II
• 1184 – 1189
Someshvara IV
History 
• Earliest records
957
• Established
975
• Disestablished
1184[1]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Rashtrakuta dynasty
Hoysala Kingdom
Kakatiya dynasty
Seuna (Yadava) dynasty

The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the

Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa, Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta dynasty ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I
who moved the capital to Kalyani.

For over a century, the two empires of

Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris of Kalyani
, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century.

The Western Chalukyas developed an

Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in their native language Kannada and Sanskrit
.

History

Old Kannada inscription dated 1028 AD from the rule of King Jayasimha II at the Praneshvara temple in Talagunda, Shivamogga district
Bellary district
Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in Koppal district, Karnataka

Knowledge of Western Chalukya history has come through examination of the numerous Kannada language

Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century,[16][17] while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas.[18]

The records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King, Chattigadeva of Banavasi-12000 province (c. 967), in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains. This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II.[19] A few years later, Tailapa II re-established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramaras of Central India in 973.[20][21] After overpowering the Rashtrakutas, Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western Deccan by subjugating the Paramara and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River.[22] However, some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042.[23]

The intense competition between the kingdom of the western Deccan and those of the

Rajendra Chola I invaded Western Chalukyas and had a battle with Western Chalukya Emperor Satyashraya at Donur in Bijapur district of Karnataka. According to an inscription of Satyasraya from Dharwad, Rajaraja Nittavinoda Rajendra Vidyadhara, ornament of the Chola race, Nurmudi-Chola (one-hundred-crown Chola) invaded the Western Chalukya Empire in 1007 AD with an army of 900,000 soldiers, carrying fire and sword throughout the region. The invading troops advanced as far as Donur in Bijapur district on their way to the Chalukya capital Manyakheta, where they were met by the Chalukya army under Satyashraya. The Tanjore big temple inscriptions and Hottur inscriptions state that Rajendra Chola I destroyed the Western Chalukya capital. The result of the battle was Cholas conquered Gangapadi and Nolambapadi. Satyashraya's successor, Jayasimha II, fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c. 1020–21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king.[24][25] Shortly thereafter in c. 1024, Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama.[24]

Chalukya dynasties
Vatapi / Badami Chalukyas
Jayasimha 500-520
Ranaraga 520-540
Pulakeshin I 540–566
Kirttivarman I 566–597
Mangalesha 597–609
Pulakeshin II 609–642
Adityavarman 643-645
Abhinavaditya 645-646
Chandraditya 646-649
Vijaya-Bhattarika (regent) 650-655
Vikramaditya I 655–680
Vinayaditya 680–696
Vijayaditya 696–733
Vikramaditya II 733–746
Kirtivarman II 746–753
Vengi / Eastern Chalukyas
Kubja Vishnuvardhana 624–641
Jayasimha I 641–673
Indra Bhattaraka 673
Vishnu Vardhana II 673–682
Mangi Yuvaraja 682–706
Jayasimha II 706–718
Kokkili 719
Vishnuvardhana III 719–755
Vijayaditya I (Eastern Chalukya) 755–772
Vishnuvardhana IV 772–808
Vijayaditya II 808–847
Kali Vishnuvardhana V 847–849
Vijayaditya III 849–892
Chalukya Bhima I 892–921
Vijayaditya IV 921
Amma I 921–927
Beta Vijayaditya V 927
Tala I 927
Vikramaditya II 927–928
Bhima II 928
Yuddhamalla II 928–935
Chalukya Bhima II 935–947
Amma II 947–970
Tala I 970
Danarnava 970–973
Jata Choda Bhima 973–999
Shaktivarman I 1000–1011
Vimaladitya 1011–1018
Rajaraja Narendra 1019–1061
Vijayaditya VII 1061-1075
Kalyani / Western Chalukyas
Tailapa II 957–997
Satyashraya 997–1008
Vikramaditya V 1008–1015
Jayasimha II 1015–1042
Someshvara I 1042–1068
Someshvara II 1068–1076
Vikramaditya VI 1076–1126
Someshvara III 1126–1138
Jagadhekamalla II 1138–1151
Tailapa III 1151–1164
Jagadhekamalla III 1163–1183
Someshvara IV 1184–1200

It is known from records that Jayasimha's son

Kadambas of Hangal. In 1075 CE Vikramaditya overthrew Someshawara II and became the Western Chalukya Emperor. In 1075-76 CE during the Chola reign of Kulottunga I , the war began with the incursion of the Vikaramaditya's forces into the Chola territories and the two armies met in the Kolar district. What followed was the Chola counter-attack popularly known as the Nangili episode. In the ensuing battle, the Chalukyan army was completely routed and chased by the Chola forces from the rocky roads of Nangili all the way to the Tungabhadra via Manalur. Vikramaditya is said to have retreated hastily and fled.[35][36]

The fifty-year reign of Vikramaditya VI, the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers, was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to by historians as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".[37][38][39] Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north (Kadamba Jayakesi II of Goa, Silhara Bhoja and the Yadava King) and south (Hoysala Vishnuvardhana), he successfully dealt with the imperial Cholas whom he defeated in the battle of Vengi in 1093 and again in 1118. He retained this territory for many years despite ongoing hostilities with the Cholas.[3][4][5][6] This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern Deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north, earning him the titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla (lord of three worlds). The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership, interest in fine arts and religious tolerance.[40][41] Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court. Poet Bilhana, who immigrated from far away Kashmir, eulogised the king in his well-known work Vikramankadeva Charita.[42][43] Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion.[44][45]

Somesvara I Trailokyamalla (1043-1068). Temple façade / Ornate floral ornament.[46]
Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent.[47][48]

The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted both empires, giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel.

Seunas also encroached upon the empire. Hoysala Narasimha I defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region. In 1157 the Kalachuris of Kalyanis under Bijjala II captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years, forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to Annigeri in the present day Dharwad district.[50][51]

The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern Deccan from central India and called themselves Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras.[52] Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders (Mahamandaleshwar) over the Karhad-4000 and Tardavadi-1000 provinces (overlapping region in present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra) with Mangalavada[53] or Annigeri[54] as their capital. Bijjala II's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him Mahabhujabala Chakravarti ("emperor with powerful shoulders and arms") indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas.[53] However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion, Someshvara IV made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani.[51][54] Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict.[55][56] During this time, Hoysala Veera Ballala II was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire. He defeated Chalukya Someshvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains, but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris.[57] The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani. Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189.[58]

The overall effort by Someshvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi 1189. After the fall of the Chalukyas, the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191, each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time.[59] This period saw the fall of two great empires, the Chalukyas of the western Deccan and the Cholas of Tamilakam. On the ruins of these two empires were built the Kingdoms of their feudatories whose mutual antagonisms filled the annals of Deccan history for over a hundred years, the Pandyas taking control over some regions of the erstwhile Chola empire.[60]

Administration

Mallikarjuna group of temples at Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka

The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary, passing to the king's brother if the king did not have a male heir. The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the

Alupas, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiya, the Seuna, the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces, paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor.[61] Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana (Chief minister), Sandhivigrahika, and Dharmadhikari (chief justice). Some positions such as Tadeyadandanayaka (commander of reserve army) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka (commander), showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills.[62]

The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi-12000, Nolambavadi-32000, Gangavadi-96000, each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction. The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages, as in Belavola-300. The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas (groups of villages) and finally a Bada (village). A Mandala was under a member of the royal family, a trusted feudatory or a senior official.

Rashtrakuta rule. Chiefs of Mandalas were transferable based on political developments. For example, an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi-12000 under King Someshvara III but was later transferred to Halasige-12000. Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas. Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled Nadugouvnda.[63]

The Western Chalukyas minted punch-marked gold

grains, Dramma weighed 65 grains, Kalanju 48 grains, Kasu 15 grains, Manjadi 2.5 grains, Akkam 1.25 grains and Pana 9.6 grain.[67]

Economy

Ornate mantapa at Kalleshvara Temple (987 CE) in Bagali, Davanagere district

Agriculture was the empire's main source of income through taxes on land and produce. The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of

pulses, and cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with areca and betel being the chief cash crops. The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords. If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor.[68]

Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines.[69] Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities (gold, textiles, perfumes) and agricultural produce (black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar). Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates.[70]

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Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or

Goudas. The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the Praja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and the Prabhu Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties.[71]

The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century.[72] Almost all arts and crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis; records do not mention individual artists, sculptors and craftsman. Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched their names below their creations.[73] Merchants organised themselves into powerful

Brahmins and Mahajanas of present-day Aihole),[74][75] who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire. It fiercely protected its trade obligations (Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants) and its members often recorded their achievements in inscriptions (prasasti
). Five hundred such excavated Prasasti inscriptions, with their own flag and emblem, the bull, record their pride in their business.

Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export taxes. The edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such as

Siraf, a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the Indian merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them.[78] In addition to this, Siraf received aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments. The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments, this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants. Traveller Marco Polo, in the 13th century, recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic, soil and grassland conditions.[77]

Culture

Religion

See also:
Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, and Akka Mahadevi
Basavanna
Statue
A Hero stone with old Kannada inscription (1115 AD) during the rule of Vikarmaditya VI at the Kedareshvara temple in Balligavi

The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century, coinciding with the defeat of the

Advaita philosophy.[80] The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at Dambal and Balligavi.[81]
There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth.

Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through its association with

Melkote resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana
converting to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed.

The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries.

Vijayanagar empire with such well-known scholars as Singiraja, Mallanarya, Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature.[88][89] The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara.[90] Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya.[91] King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism.[92]

Society

Main article:
Western Chalukya Society
Kirtimukha relief at Kedareswara Temple in Balligavi, Shimoga district

The rise of

Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known.[93] Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals.[94][95] Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow used to immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre) though present was on a voluntary basis.[96] Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the Jains who preferred to fast to death (Sallekhana
), while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes (Shoolabrahma) or walking into fire on an eclipse.

In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present, Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs. They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses. The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters (Panchayat).[97]

Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar.[98] People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime.[99] In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.[100]

Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues. Choirs, whose main function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu

Kautilyas Arthashastra
.

Literature

Main article:
Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire
Grill work at Tripurantkesvara temple in Balligavi, Shimoga district

The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada, and Sanskrit.

Vachanas. Nearly three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras (Vachana poets) including thirty women poets have been recorded.[105][106] Early works by Brahmin writers were on the epics, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Puranas and Vedas. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time.[107][108]

Most notable among Kannada scholars were

Basavanna. Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the "three gems of Kannada literature".[109] He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit. Of these, Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gada yuddha) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war.[110] He wrote Ajitha purana in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.[111][112]

Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects.[113][114] His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Kavyavalokana in poetics, Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive contributions.[115] Several works on medicine were produced during this period. Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha's Karnataka Kalyana Karaka.[116]

A popular Vachana poem in the Kannada language by Akka Mahadevi

A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called

Vachanas developed during this time. They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Channabasavanna and Siddharama are the best known among them.[117]

In Sanskrit, a well-known poem (Mahakavya) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI. The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II.[118] The great Indian mathematician Bhāskara II (born c. 1114) flourished during this time. From his own account in his famous work Siddhanta Siromani (c. 1150, comprising the Lilavati, Bijaganita on algebra, Goladhaya on the celestial globe and Grahaganita on planets) Bijjada Bida (modern Bijapur) was his native place.[119]

Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Someshvara III (1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society. This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc.[120] While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance, it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time.[121] Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman-Kabhyudaya. The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people of Karnataka.[122]

A Sanskrit scholar

Englishman Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system.[123] Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara.[124]

Architecture

Main article: Western Chalukya architecture
Vimana at Siddesvara temple in Haveri
, Karnataka

The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between the

Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka.[127] The dynasty's temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan, more than half of them in present-day central Karnataka.[128][129] Apart from temples, the dynasty's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.[130][131]

Gadag city, Karnataka

The

Bhutanatha group of Temples.[149][150]

Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi
dates to the mid-late 11th century

The

vimana of their temples (tower over the shrine) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas.[126] To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe turned (tuned) pillars and use of Soapstone (Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples. They popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha (demon faces) in their sculptures. Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi.[151] The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture.[131] This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida, one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture.[152]

Language

Old Kannada inscription ascribed to King Vikramaditya VI, dated 1112 CE at Mahadeva Temple in Itagi, Karnataka

The local language

Kannada was mostly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs. Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in Sanskrit.[153][154] More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century,[155] many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India.[13] Inscriptions were generally either on stone (Shilashasana) or copper plates (Tamarashasana). This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (called Lingayatism) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas.[156] At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit. Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses. This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity.[157]

In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular. Some well-known works are Chandombudhi, a prosody, and Karnataka Kadambari, a romance, both written by Nagavarma I, a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna (993), a book on medicine called Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya (1049), a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja, and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II (1025).[108][158]

See also

Notes

  1. ISBN 978-93-80607-34-4
    .
  2. ISBN 0226742210
    .
  3. ^ a b Quote:"From 1118, Ananthapala, Vikramaditya VI's famous general is described as the ruler of Vengi, other Chalukyan commanders are found established in other parts of Telugu country and the Chola power practically disappears for a number of years thereafter. Thus Kulotunga sustained another curtailment of his empire which by the end of his reign was practically confined to Tamil country and a relatively small area of the adjoining Telugu districts".(Sastri 1955, p175)
  4. ^
    Kakatiya of Warangal, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chedi
    of Ratnapur and the rulers of the Malwa territories south of the Narmada river (Kamath 2001, p105)
  5. ^ a b Quote:"About AD 1118 Vikramaditya's diplomatic and military skill enabled the Western Chalukyas to end Chola ascendancy on Vengi and bring that province back within the sphere of influence of Kalyani"(Chopra 2003, p139, part1)
  6. ^ a b Quote:"From about 1118 to the end of Vikramaditya's reign, and for some years thereafter, the Chola power seized to exist in Vengi" (Sen 1999, p387)
  7. ^
    ISBN 81-7017-059-1
  8. ^ a b Sen (1999), p282
  9. ^
    ISBN 81-208-0436-8
  10. ^ Pollock (2006), pp. 288–289, 332
  11. ^ Houben(1996), p. 215
  12. ^ Kamath (2001), pp10–12, p100
  13. ^ a b Sastry, Shama & Rao, N. Lakshminarayana. "Kannada inscriptions". Archaeological survey of India, South Indian inscriptions, Saturday, November 18, 2006. What Is India Publishers (P) Ltd. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
  14. ^ The province of Tardavadi, lying in the very heart of the Rashtrakuta empire, was given to Tailapa II as a fief (provincial grant) by Rashtrakuta Krishna III for services rendered in war (Sastri 1955, p162)
  15. ^ Kamath (2001), p101
  16. Vemulavada
    , who were certainly from the Badami Chalukya family line used the title "Malla" which is often used by the Western Chalukyas. Names such as "Satyashraya" which were used by the Badami Chalukya are also name of a Western Chalukya king, (Gopal B.R. in Kamath 2001, p100)
  17. ^ Unlike the Badami Chalukyas, the Kalyani Chalukyas did not claim to be Harithiputhras of Manavysya gotra in lineage. The use of titles like Tribhuvanamalla marked them of as a distinct line (Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar in Kamath 2001, p100)
  18. ^ Moraes (1931), pp88-93
  19. ^ Later legends and tradition hailed Tailapa as an incarnation of the God Krishna who fought 108 battles against the race of Ratta (Rashtrakuta) and captured 88 fortresses from them (Sastri 1955, p162)
  20. ^ According to a 973 inscription, Tailapa II helped by Kadambas of Hangal, destroyed the Rattas (Rashtrakutas), killed the valiant Munja (of the Paramara kingdom), took the head of Panchala (Ganga dynasty) and restored the royal dignity of the Chalukyas (Moraes 1931, pp 93–94)
  21. ^ Sastri (1955), p164
  22. ^ A minor capital of Jayasimha II (Cousens 1926, p10, p105)
  23. ^ a b Sen (1999), p383
  24. ^ Jayasimha's choice was Vijayaditya VII while the Cholas sought to place Rajaraja Narendra, son-in-law of Rajendra Chola I (Kamath 2001, p102
  25. ^ Quote:"Beautified it so that it surpassed all the other cities of the earth" (Cousens 1926, p10)
  26. ^ a b Sen (1999), p384
  27. ^ Ganguli in Kamath 2001, p103
  28. ^ Sastri (1955), p166
  29. ^ Someshvara I supported the cause of Shaktivarman II, son of Vijayaditya II while the Cholas preferred Rajendra, son of the previous king Rajaraja Narendra (Kamath 2001, p103)
  30. ^ Sastri (1955), p169
  31. ^ Kamath (2001), p104
  32. ^ Sastri (1955), p170
  33. ^ Cousens (1926), pp10–11
  34. ^ Sastri 1955, p172
  35. ^ Eulogising Vikramaditya VI, Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote in his Vikramanakadeva Charita that lord Shiva himself advised Chalukya Vikramaditya VI to replace his elder brother from the throne (Thapar 2003, p468)
  36. ^ Vikramaditya VI abolished the saka era and established the Vikrama-varsha (Vikrama era). Most Chalukya inscriptions thereafter are dated to this new era (Cousens 1926, p11)
  37. Satavahana
    Vikrama era 58 BCE, Shaka era, of 78 CE, Harshavardhana era of 606 CE (Thapar, 2003, pp 468–469)
  38. ^ Sen (1999), p386
  39. ^ Vijnyaneshavara, his court scholar in Sanskrit, wrote of him as a king like none other (Kamath 2001, p106)
  40. ^ Cousens (1926), p12
  41. ^ Bilhana called the reign "Rama Rajya" in his writing that consisted of 18 cantos. The last canto of this work is about the life of author himself who writes that the work was composed by him in gratitude for the great honor bestowed upon him by the ruler of Karnata (Sastri 1955, p315)
  42. ^ Bilhana was made Vidyapati (chief pandit) by the king (Cousens 1926, p12)
  43. ^ No other king prior to the Vijayanagara rulers have left behind so many records as Vikramaditya VI (Kamath 2001, p105)
  44. ^ a b c Sen (1999), p387
  45. ^ CNG Coins
  46. ISBN 0226742210
    .
  47. ISBN 978-0-14-196655-7
    .
  48. ^ Their feudatories, Hoysalas of Mysore region, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Seunas of Devagiri and the Pandyas of Madurai wasted no time in seizing the opportunity, (Sastri 1955,p158)
  49. ^ a b c Sastri (1955), p176
  50. ^ a b Sen (1999), p388
  51. ^ Kamath (2001), p107
  52. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p108
  53. ^ a b Cousens (1926), p13
  54. ^ From the Minajagi record of 1184 (Kamath 2001, p109)
  55. ^ A Kalachuri commander called Barmideva or Brahma is known to have given support to the Chalukyas (Sastri 1955, p179–180)
  56. ^ Kamath (2001), p127
  57. ^ Sen (1999), pp388-389
  58. ^ Sastri (1955), p180
  59. ^ Sastri (1955), p192
  60. ^ Kamath (2001), p110
  61. ^ Kamath (2001), p109
  62. ^ There was flexibility to the terms used to designate territorial division (Dikshit G.S. in Kamath 2001, p110)
  63. ^ Coins of Western Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found (Kamath 2001, p12)
  64. ^ Govindaraya Prabhu, S (1 November 2001). "Indian coins-Dynasties of South-Chalukyas". Prabhu's Web Page On Indian Coinage. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  65. ^ Govindaraya Prabhu, S. "Indian coins-Dynasties of South-Alupas". Prabhu's Web Page On Indian Coinage, 1 November 2001. Archived from the original on 15 August 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  66. ^ Kamath (2001), p111
  67. ^ Thapar (2002), p373
  68. ^ Thapar (2002), p378
  69. ^ Sastri (1955), p298
  70. ^ Thapar (2002), p379, p382
  71. ^ Thapar (2002), p382
  72. ^ Sastri (1955), p299
  73. ^ Sastri (1955), p300
  74. ^ Thapar (2002), p384
  75. ^ Sastri (1955), 301
  76. ^ a b Thapar (2002), 383
  77. ^ Sastri (1955), p302
  78. ^ Kamath (2001), p112, p132
  79. ^ A 16th-century Buddhist work by Lama Taranatha speaks disparagingly of Shankaracharya as close parallels in some beliefs of Shankaracharya with Buddhist philosophy was not viewed favourably by Buddhist writers (Thapar, 2003, pp 349–350, p397)
  80. ^ An inscription dated 1095 CE of Vikramaditya VI mentions grants to a Vihara of Buddha and Arya-Taradevi (Cousens 1926, p11)
  81. ^ It is said five earlier saints Renuka, Daruka, Ekorama, Panditharadhya and Vishwaradhya were the original founders of Virashaivism (Kamath 2001, p152)
  82. ^ However it is argued that these saints were from the same period as Basavanna (Sastri 1955, p393)
  83. ^ Thapar (2003), p399
  84. ^ He criticised Adi Shankara as a "Buddhist in disguise" (Kamath 2001, p151)
  85. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p20
  86. ^ Sastri (1955), p361–362
  87. ^ Kamath (2001), p182
  88. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p22
  89. ^ Mack (2001), pp35–36
  90. ^ Kamath (2001), p152
  91. ^ Kamath, K.L. (4 November 2006). "Hoysala Temples of Belur". Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 1 December 2006.
  92. ^ She was not only a pioneer in the era of Women's emancipation but also an example of a transcendental world-view (Thapar 2003, p392)
  93. ^ Sastri (1955), p286
  94. ^ This is in stark contrast to the literature of the time (like Vikramankadeva Charita of Bilhana) that portrayed women as retiring, overly romantic and unconcerned with affairs of the state (Thapar 2003, p392)
  95. ^ The Belathur inscription of 1057 describes the end of a widow called Dekabbe who committed Sati despite the requests of her parents not to while some widows such as Chalukya queen Attimabbe long survived their deceased husbands (Kamath 2001, pp 112–113)
  96. ^ The intellectual qualifications of the Brahmins made them apt to serve as ministers and advisers of Kings(Rajguru), (Charles Eliot in Sastri 1955, p289)
  97. ^ Sastri (1955), p288
  98. ^ Sastri (1955), p289
  99. ^ The Manasollasa written by King Someshvara III contains significant information of the social life of Western Chalukyan times (Kamath 2001, p112)
  100. ^ Orchestras were popularised by the Kalamukhas, a cult who worshipped Lord Shiva (Kamath 2001, p115)
  101. ^ Sastri (1955), p292
  102. ^ Kamath (2001), p114
  103. ^ Sen (1999), p. 393
  104. ^ S.S.Basavanal in Puranik, p4452, (1992)
  105. ^ Sastri (1955), p361
  106. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp18–20
  107. ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1988), pp61–65
  108. Sri Ponna
    (Sastri 1955, p356)
  109. ^ A composition written in a mixed prose-verse style is called Champu (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12)
  110. ^ This also is in Champu style and was written at the request of Attimabbe, a pious widow of general Nagavarma who promoted the cause of Jainism (Sastri 1955, p356)
  111. ^ E.P.Rice (1921), p32
  112. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp64–65,
  113. ^ E.P.Rice (1921), p34
  114. Hoysala Empire
    (Sastri 1955, p358)
  115. ^ Narasimhachar (1988), p.63
  116. ^ Vachanas are disconnected paragraphs ending with a name attributed to lord Shiva or one of his forms. The poems teach the valuelessness of riches, rituals and book learning and the spiritual privileges of worshipping Shiva, (B.L. Rice in Sastri 1955, p361)
  117. ^ Thapar (2003), p394
  118. ISBN 978-0-12-397913-1
  119. ^ Thapar, (2003), p393
  120. ^ Sastri (1955), p315
  121. ^ A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 by E. Sreedharan p.328
  122. ^ Sastri (1955), p324
  123. Seuna
    kingdom, (Kamath 2001, p115)
  124. ^ An important period in the development of Indian art (Kamath 2001, p115)
  125. ^ a b Sastri (1955), p427
  126. ^ Kannikeswaran. "Temples of Karnataka, Kalyani Chalukyan temples". Retrieved 16 December 2006.
  127. ^ A fabulous revival of Chalukya temple building in central Karnataka in the 11th century (Foekema (1996), p14)
  128. ^ Hardy (1995), pp156-157
  129. ^ Davison-Jenkins (2001), p89
  130. ^ a b Kamiya, Takeo. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent,20 September 1996". Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  131. ^ Cousens (1926), pp79–82
  132. ^ a b Hardy (1995), p336
  133. ^ Cousens (1926), pp114–115
  134. ^ Hardy (1995), p326
  135. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p117
  136. ^ Hardy (1995), p323
  137. ^ Cousens (1926), pp85–87
  138. ^ Hardy (1995), p330
  139. ^ Hardy (1995), p321
  140. ^ Cousens (1926), pp100–102
  141. ^ Hardy (1995), p333
  142. ^ Hardy (1995), p335
  143. ^ Hardy (1995), p324
  144. ^ Quote:"A title it fully deserves, for it is probably the finest temple in Kanarese districts, after Halebidu"(Cousens 1926, p101)
  145. ^ Rao, Kishan. "Emperor of Temples crying for attention". The Hindu, June 10, 2002. The Hindu. Archived from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 10 November 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  146. ^ Cousens (1926), pp105–106
  147. ^ Githa U.B. "Balligavi-An important seat of learning". ©Chitralakshana.com 2002. Chitralakshana. Archived from the original on 6 October 2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006.
  148. ^ Hardy (1995), p 157
  149. ^ Gunther, Michael D 2002. "Monuments of India - V". Retrieved 10 November 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  150. ^ Kamath (2001), pp116–118
  151. ^ Hardy (1995), pp6–7
  152. ^ Pollock (2006), p332
  153. ^ Houben(1996), p215
  154. ^ Thousands of Kannada-language inscriptions are ascribed by Vikramaditya VI and pertain to his daily land and charitable grants (Nityadana),Kamat, Jyotsna. "Chalukyas of Kalyana". 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 24 December 2006.
  155. Lingayat
    movement of Virashaivas (Thapar 2003, p396)
  156. ^ However by the 14th century, bilingual inscriptions lost favour and inscriptions became mostly in the local language (Thapar, 2003, pp393–95)
  157. ^ E.P.Rice (1921), p33

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