Western Roman Empire
Western Roman Empire | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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395–476/480b | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Status | Western administrative division of the Roman Empirea | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | Mediolanum (395–401)[1] Ravenna (401–403, 408–450, 457–461, 475–476) Rome (403–408, 450–457, 461–475)[2] Honorius | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 425–455 | Valentinian III | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 457–461 | Majorian | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 474–480 | Julius Nepos | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 475–476 | Romulus Augustulus | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Legislature | Roman Senate | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Late antiquity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Death of Emperor Theodosius I | 17 January 395 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Deposition of Emperor Romulus | 4 September 476 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Murder of Julius Nepos | 9 May 480 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
395[3] | 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Roman currency | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The term Western Roman Empire is used in modern historiography to refer to the western provinces of the Roman Empire, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. Particularly during the period from AD 395 to 476, there were separate, coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire into the Western provinces and the Eastern provinces with a distinct imperial succession in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire were coined in modern times to describe political entities that were de facto independent; contemporary Romans did not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a single polity governed by two imperial courts for administrative expediency. The Western Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court in Ravenna disappeared by AD 554, at the end of Justinian's Gothic War.
Though there were periods with more than one emperor ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire was
In 476, after the
In the 6th century, Emperor
Background
As the
Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the
Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West:
Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. The Empire featured many distinct cultures, all experienced a gradual Romanization.[8] While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such as history (e.g., those by Cato the Elder), philosophy and rhetoric.[9][10][11]
Rebellions and political developments
Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt, and the
As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the rivers
Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of the Crisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession: Philip the Arab, Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus were all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general.[18][19][20]
The idea of co-emperorship was first tested by Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180), who decided to rule alongside his adoptive brother Lucius Verus. There was, however, much precedent. The consulate of the Republic was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—Augustus planned to leave Gaius and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; as Claudius with Nero and Britannicus. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus).[21] Marcus Aurelius ruled mostly from the West, while Verus spent most of his reign campaigning in the East, against Parthia. Verus accompanied Marcus at the start of the Marcomannic Wars, but died shortly after. Decades later, Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) appointed his sons Geta and Caracalla as joint heirs. However, Caracalla murdered his brother shortly after succeeding to the throne.
Crisis of the Third Century
With the assassination of the emperor
In the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268–270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, however, several eastern provinces seceded to form the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.[25]
In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeated Tetricus I in the Battle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his son Tetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph.[26][27]
Tetrarchy
The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306. His son, Constantine, was declared Western emperor by the British legions,[32][33][34][35] but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine and Licinius.[36] However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire so, by 314, began to compete against Licinius, finally defeating him in 324 at the Battle of Chrysopolis.[37] After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city of Byzantium in modern-day Turkey as Nova Roma ("New Rome"), later called Constantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire.[38] Although the Tetrarchy was ended, the concept of physically dividing the Roman Empire into East and a West continued, as happened after the deaths of Constantine and Theodosius I.[39][40]
Further divisions
The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.
Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla, more than a century prior.[43]
In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as "barbarian kingdoms", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in the praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries.[92] In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place.[93] The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century.[94]
A Mauro-Roman realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city of
Germanic Italy
The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.[84] Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial "governor" of Italy and was even awarded the title of patricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the Eastern Augustus, rather than in his own name.[84]
When Nepos was murdered in Dalmatia in 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule in Dalmatia at the same time.[99] Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legend S C (Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried out by Emperor Anastasius in the East.[100]
Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first being
Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to the
Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly a patricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his own laws, only edicts or clarifications.[105] The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy.[106]
Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic king
With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under King
Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern emperor Justinian I and allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in the Vandalic War. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relative Theodahad as king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an ideal casus belli for Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire.[109]
Imperial reconquest
With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughout
Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.[111] Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or "protection money".[112] Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world.[113]
Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were both de facto and de jure independent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.[114] With the pro-Roman Vandal king Hilderic having been deposed by Gelimer in 530,[115] Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a new Praetorian Prefecture of Africa and taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people.[116]
Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under King
At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s.
Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of
The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to the Umayyad Caliphate in the 720s.[122][123] The Kingdom of Asturias was founded by Pelagius of Asturias around the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths.[124] Asturias would be transformed into the Kingdom of León in 924,[125] which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain.[126]
The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independent Papal States, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish king Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in AD 800. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, Emperor Michael I recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor". He refused to recognize him as a "Roman Emperor" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious "Emperor of the Franks".[127]
Imperial rule continued in Sicily throughout the eighth century, with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in Calabria provided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, the Normans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with the conquest of Bari.[128] The last emperor to attempt reconquests in the West was Manuel I Komnenos, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the Norman Kingdom of Sicily in the 1150s. The city of Bari willingly opened its gates to the emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region,[129] Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches of Rome and Constantinople, separated since the schism of 1054. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east.[130]
Legacy
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of
Latin as a language did not disappear. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.[132]
Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English and German.[133] It survives in a "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the Catholic Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969. As such it was also used as a lingua franca by ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy, as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of other lingua francas, especially English and French.[134] The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system[135] and is the
A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Catholic Church. Church institutions slowly began to replace Roman ones in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century.[72] As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the Church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks; other kingdoms, such as the Visigoths, later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy.[137]
When
The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to install Symmachus as pope despite both Theodoric of Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate, Laurentius.[140] Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by Emperor Tiberius II in 578 and 580. The traditional senate building, Curia Julia, was rebuilt into a church under Pope Honorius I in 630, probably with permission from the Eastern emperor, Heraclius.[141]
Nomenclature
Marcellinus Comes, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in his Chronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In the Chronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east ("Oriens") and west ("Occidens") and of an imperial east ("Orientale imperium" and "Orientale respublica") and an imperial west ("Occidentalie imperium", "Occidentale regnum", "Occidentalis respublica", "Hesperium regnum", "Hesperium imperium" and "principatum Occidentis"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being "Eastern", "Orientalibus principibus" and "Orientalium consulum" respectively.[142] The term Hesperium Imperium, translating to "Western Empire", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well.[143]
Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term "Roman" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as "us", "our generals", and "our emperor", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns.[142] This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one.[89] The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as with Caracalla and Geta in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their father Septimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.[144]
Attempted restorations of a Western court
The positions of Eastern and Western Augustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the sole Augustus, Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer.[87] The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper, Stotzas, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated).[145] As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West.[146][147]
The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during the
At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose two Caesares, the general Maurice and the governor Germanus, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more.[147] If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, the Exarchate, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Exarchate of Africa.[149]
Later claims to the Imperial title in the West
In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in AD 800, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of translatio imperii. Though the Carolingian Empire collapsed in 888 and Berengar, the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the Holy Roman Empire in 962. The Holy Roman Emperors would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman emperors of old until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.[150]
Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be "one and indivisible". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation was Irene of Athens, the mother of emperor Constantine VI who she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by Emperor Nikephoros soon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s Emperor Michael I Rangabe eventually recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor", but as the slightly humiliating "Emperor of the Franks" rather than "Roman Emperor", a title he reserved for himself.[127] For centuries to come, the "revived" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an "Empire of the Franks", the term "Empire of the Greeks" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople.[151]
Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The Austrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule.[152] The German Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.[153] Both of these empires used the imperial title Kaiser (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the First World War along with the Russian and Ottoman Empires which had also claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.[154][155][156]
List of Western Roman emperors
With junior colleagues and heirs are listed below the reign of each emperor.
Tetrarchy (286–313)
- Maximian: 286–305[157]
- Constantius I: 293–305[158]
Maximian was elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeated Carinus.[159] He became Western emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors.[160]
- Constantius I: 305–306[161]
- Severus II: 305–306[162]
Constantius was elevated to caesar in 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian.[160] Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake.[163]
- Severus II: 306–307[162]
- Constantine I: 306–307[162]
Valerius Severus was elevated to caesar by Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and captured the Western Empire.[164] He had Severus put to death soon after his capture.[165]
Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus, and ruled alongside his father Maximian. They succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after.[167] The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into the Tiber river.[168] Maximian had relinquished the title of augustus in 308, but rebelled in Gaul once again in 310. He was defeated by Constantine shortly after.[166]
Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at the
Constantinian dynasty (309–363)
- Constantine I: 306–337 (Sole emperor: 324–337).[162]
- Crispus: 317–326
Constantine I was proclaimed augustus of the Western Empire by his father's troops on 25 July 306 and was accepted as caesar by Galerius later that year. In 307 Maximian accepted him to augustus (although Maximian himself was considered an usurper) and in 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He ruled alone in the West from 312 and became sole Roman emperor following the defeat of Licinius at the Battle of Chrysopolis.[170]
- Constantine II 337–340 (Emperor of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania: 337–340).[162]
Constantine II was proclaimed caesar of the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II the Praetorian prefecture of Gaul, which also included Britannia and Hispania. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed.[171]
- Constans I 337–350 (Emperor of Italy and Africa: 337–340, Western emperor: 340–350).[162]
Constans was given the Praetorian prefecture of Italy and Africa on the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border.[172]
- Magnentius 350–353[173] (Not recognized in the East)
- Vetranio: 350[174] (Rival emperor; recognized by Constantius II)
- Nepotianus: 350[174] (Rival emperor; recognized by the Roman Senate)
Magnentius was defeated by Constantius II at the Battle of Mursa Major in 351, but continued to rule Italy and Gaul until his final defeat at the Battle of Mons Seleucus.[173]
- Constantius II 351–361 (Eastern emperor: 337–351, Sole emperor: 351–361).[162]
- Constantius Gallus: 351–354
- Julian: 355–361[162]
Constantius II was proclaimed caesar in 334, and became Eastern emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever.[175]
Julian was proclaimed caesar in 355. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops shortly before Constantius' death. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra.[176]
Non-dynastic (363–364)
When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, under Shapur II. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation.[177]
Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)
- Valentinian I: 364–375[162]
After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage.[178]
- Gratian: 375–383[162]
- Valentinian II: 375–383[162]
Valentinian I elevated his son, Gratian, to augustus in 367, however after his death in 375 his leading generals elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, to augustus alongside Gratian and Valens who was emperor in the East.
- Valentinian II: 383–392[162]
After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia.[180] Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was probably murdered by Arbogast.[181]
Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 383, in opposition to Gratian, and defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was recognized as the Western emperor by Eastern emperor Theodosius I in 384, however this recognition was revoked by him when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius I to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed.[180][182][184][185]
Theodosian dynasty (392–455)
- Theodosius I: 394–395 (Eastern emperor: 379–394, sole emperor: 394–395)[162]
Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius died of edema in January 395.[186]
- Honorius: 395–423[162]
- Constantine III: 409–411[162] (Not recognized by Eastern emperor but recognized by Honorius; accepted by the Senate)
- Constans II: 409–411[162](Not recognized by Honorius and Eastern emperor; recognized only by Constantine III; not accepted by the Senate)
- Priscus Attalus: 409–410[187] (Not recognized by Honorius and Eastern emperor; accepted by the Senate)
- Constantius III: 421[162]
- Constantine III: 409–411[162] (Not recognized by Eastern emperor but recognized by Honorius; accepted by the Senate)
Honorius became Western emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled by Stilicho, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. After 408 his reign was greatly influenced by the general Constantius, who briefly reigned as his co-emperor for a few months before dying of natural causes. He also faced the usurpation of Priscus Attalus, a senator who was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 409, and Constantine, who took over Britain and Gaul around the same time. Honorius died of edema in 423.[188][187]
Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimed caesar, only given the title of nobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper named Joannes rose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern emperor Theodosius II. Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna.
- Valentinian III: 425–455[162]
Valentinian III was killed on 16 March 455, by Optila, a friend of Aetius, whom Valentinian had killed.[189]
Non-dynastic (455–480)
The following last emperors of the West were all accepted by the Senate but only two of them (Anthemius and Julius Nepos) were recognized in the East. In fact, these two emperors were installed by the Eastern emperor.
- Petronius Maximus: 455 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)[162]
Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III.
Avitus was proclaimed Western emperor on 9 July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472.[194]
Majorian was proclaimed Western emperor on 28 December 456. On 7 August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered by Ricimer, who became the power behind the throne.[196]
- Libius Severus: 461–465 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)[162]
Libius Severus was proclaimed Western emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, with Aegidius splitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14 November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer.[197]
Anthemius was proclaimed Western emperor on 12 April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472.[198]
Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema.[199]
After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western emperor by the Western Roman army, on 3 or 5 May 473.[200] He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death.[201]
- Julius Nepos: 474–475 (In exile 475–480)[202]
The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia as Western Roman emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474.[81] Orestes, magister militum of Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor.[82] Nepos continued to rule as "Western emperor" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title.[86]
- Romulus Augustus: 475–476 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)[202]
Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos.
With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer, direct Roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as a de jure representative of Western Roman emperor Nepos. With the death of Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. The position of Roman emperor would never again be divided, though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century, such as Belisarius in 540 and Germanus in 582.[146][147]
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- ^ Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 38.
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- ^ Southern 2015, p. 99–118.
- ^ Bourne 2000, p. 14.
- ^ Postumus.
- ^ Smith 2013, p. 179.
- ^ Southern 2015, p. 176.
- ^ Vagi 2000, p. 386.
- ^ Barnes 2006, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Potter 2014, p. 282.
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Further reading
- Börm, Henning (2018). Westrom: Von Honorius bis Justinian. Kohlhammer. ISBN 978-3170332164.
- Heather, Peter (2003). The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-1843830337.
- Kolb, Frank (1987). Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie : Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft?. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110109344.
- Merills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2007). The Vandals. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405160681.
External links
- De Imperatoribus Romanis. Scholarly biographies of many Roman emperors, including those of the Western Roman Empire.
- Digital Map of the Roman Empire. Navigable and interactive map of the Roman Empire.
- The Fall of Rome Podcast. Podcast concerning the Fall of the Western Roman Empire by PhD historian Patrick Wyman.