Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western Satraps" in modern historiography in order to differentiate them from the "Northern Satraps", who ruled in Punjab and Mathura
until the 2nd century CE.
The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the Emperor
Abhiras/Ahirs, declined rapidly during the second half of the third century.[4]
Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.
Name
The rulers of the Western Satraps were called Mahākhatapa (𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀔𑀢𑀧, "Great Satrap") in their Brahmi script inscriptions, as here in a dedicatory inscription by Prime Minister Ayama in the name of his ruler Nahapana, Manmodi Caves, circa 100 CE. Nahapana was also attributed the titles of Raño ("King") and Sāmi ("Lord") conjointly.[5]
They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the "Northern Satraps" who ruled around East Punjab and the area of Mathura, such as Rajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.[6]
Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps",
Geographia" still called them "Indo-Scythians".[7] The word Kṣatrapa has the same origin as the word satrap and are both descended from Medianxšaθrapāvan-, which means viceroy or governor of a province, and according to John Marshall, the word kṣatrapa means the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of the Mahakṣatrapa or the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title of kṣatrapa was given to the heir apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians.[8]
The title Kṣaharāta by which the Western Satraps styled themselves is a derivation of a Saka language term *xšaθrapati, meaning "lord of the country", and was likely the Saka synonym for the Indian title Kṣatrapa, which had itself been borrowed from the Iranian Median language.[9]
The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known as
First expansion: Kshaharata dynasty (1st century CE)
Brahmi
inscription: Kshaharatasa Kshatrapasa Bhumakasa.
The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-lived Kshaharata dynasty (also called Chaharada, Khaharata or Khakharata depending on sources).
Sri Pulamavi also mentions the Khakharatavasa, or Kshaharata race.[12]
The earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence is
Buddhist symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel (dharmachakra), or the lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar of Ashoka
Greco-Prakrit title "RANNIO KSAHARATA" ("ΡΑΝΝΙω ΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑ(Ϲ)", Prakrit for "King Kshaharata" rendered in corrupted Greek letters) on the obverse of the coinage of Nahapana.[14][15]
Location of Western Satrap inscriptions in Buddhist rock-cut caves, indicating the southern extent of their territory, circa 120 CE,[16] and main neighbouring polities at that time.[17]
Nahapana succeeded him, and became a very powerful ruler. He occupied portions of the
Kushans were expanding their empire in the North.[19]
His son-in-law, the Saka
Nasik and Karle and Junnar (Manmodi Caves, inscription of the year 46) to have been viceroy of Nahapana, ruling over the southern part of his territory.[20][16]
Nahapana established the silver coinage of the Kshatrapas.
Circa 120 CE, the Western Satraps are known to have allied with the
...And by order of the lord I went to release the chief of the Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for the rainy season by the Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching) as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors.
In particular, the chaitya cave complex of the Karla Caves, the largest in South Asia, was constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana.[25][31][32]
Great Chaitya hall at Karla
Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)[25]
Parts of the Nasik Caves, also called Pandavleni Caves, were also carved during the time of Nahapana.[26]
The inscriptions of cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves near
Nasik, reveal that in 105-106 CE, Kshatrapas defeated the Satavahanas after which Kshatrapa Nahapana’s son-in-law and Dinika's son- Ushavadata
donated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara' is spacious with 16 rooms.
son-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana:
Nasik Cave inscription No.10. of Nahapana, Cave No.10.One of the pillars built by Ushavadata, viceroy of Nahapana, circa 120 CE, Nasik Caves, cave No10.
Success! Ushavadata, son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi hills at Govardhana, has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns.
According to the inscriptions, Ushavadata accomplished various charities and conquests on behalf of his father-in-law. He constructed rest-houses, gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha (
A dedication in the Lenyadri complex of the Junnar caves (inscription No. 26 in Cave VI of the Bhimasankar group of caves), mentions a gift by Nahapana's prime minister Ayama in the "year 46":
The meritorious gift.... of Ayama of the Vachhasagotra, prime minister of the King Mahakshatrapa the lord Nahapana
This inscription, the last one of the reign of Nahapana, suggests that Nahapana may have become an independent ruler since he is described as a King.[37]
International trade: the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Nahapana is mentioned in the
Barigaza
:
Beyond the
Syrastrene. It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza.
Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers of
Roman trade with India
. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:
There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also
Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.
The Western Satraps under Nahapana, with their harbour of Barigaza, were among the main actors of the 1st century CE international trade according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain, the capital of the Western Satraps:
Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.
Some ships were also fitted out from Barigaza, to export goods westward across the Indian Ocean:
Ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products of their own places; wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and girdles, and honey from the reed called sacchari. Some make the voyage especially to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing along the coast.
It seems that the Indian colonization of the islands of Java and Sumatra took place during the time of the Western Satraps.[46] People may have fled the sub-continent due to the conflicts there. Some foundation legends of Java describe the leader of the colonists as Aji Saka, a prince from Gujarat, at the beginning of the Shaka era (which is also the Java era).[46]
Kardamaka dynasty, family of Castana (1st–4th century)
Chastana
(c. 130 CE). Obv: King in profile. The legend typically reads "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA" (corrupted Greek script), transliteration of the Prakrit Raño Kshatrapasa Castana: "King and Satrap Castana".
A new dynasty, called the Bhadramukhas or Kardamaka dynasty, was established by the "Satrap"
Vima Taktu, and bearing the name "Shastana" is often attributed to Castana himself, and suggests Castana may have been a feudatory of the Kushans. Conversely, the Rabatak inscription also claims Kushan dominion over Western Satrap territory (by mentioning Kushan control over the capital Ujjain) during the reign of Kanishka
The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by the geographer
Barigaza
in the south.
Moreover the region which is next to the western part of India, is called Indoscythia. A part of this region around the (Indus) river mouth is
Barygaza emporium. On the east side of the river (...) Ozena-Regia Tiastani (...) Minnagara
.
— Ptolemy, Geographia, Book Seven, Chapter I
Rudradaman I (130-150 CE)
Victory against the Satavahanas
Brahmi legend: Rajno Ksatrapasa Jayadamasaputrasa Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudradamasa: "King and Great Satrap Rudradaman, son of King and Satrap Jayadaman
Of the queen ... of the illustrious Satakarni Vasishthiputra, descended from the race of Karddamaka kings, (and) daughter of the Mahakshatrapa Ru(dra)....... .........of the confidential minister Sateraka, a water-cistern, the meritorious gift.
— Kanheri inscription of Rudradaman I's daughter.[52]
The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps remained at war however, and Rudradaman I defeated the Satavahanas twice in these conflicts, only sparing the life of Vashishtiputra Satakarni due to their family alliance:
Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him.
Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, probably with the exception of the southern areas of
Nasik (epigraphical remains in these two areas at that time are exclusively Satavahana):[54]
Rudradaman (...) who is the lord of the whole of eastern and western Akaravanti (
Nishada (an aboriginal tribe, Malwa and parts of Central India) and other territories gained by his own valour, the towns, marts and rural parts of which are never troubled by robbers, snakes, wild beasts, diseases and the like, where all subjects are attached to him, (and) where through his might the objects of (religion), wealth and pleasure (are duly attained).
Later, the Junagadh rock inscription (c. 150 CE) of
Yaudheyas "who would not submit because they were proud of their title 'heroes among the Kshatriyas'", before explaining that they were ultimately vanquished by Rudradaman I.[57][58]
Rudradaman (...) who by force destroyed the Yaudheyas who were loath to submit, rendered proud as they were by having manifested their title of 'heroes among all Kshatriyas'.
Recently discovered pillar inscriptions describe the presence of a Western Satrap named Rupiamma in the Bhandara district of the area of Vidarbha, in the extreme northeastern area of Maharashtra, where he erected the pillars.[59]
Rudradarman is known for his sponsoring of the arts. He is known to have written poetry in the purest of Sanskrit, and made it his court language. His name is forever attached to the inscription by Sudharshini lake.
He had at his court a Greek writer named
Yavanesvara ("Lord of the Greeks"), who translated from Greek to Sanskrit the Yavanajataka ("Saying of the Greeks"), an astrological treatise and India's earliest Sanskrit work in horoscopy.[60]
Saka Era 100 and 103 (178-181 CE), before the rule of Rudrasimha I
, and once between Saka Era 119 and 120 (197-198 CE).
Rudrasimha I (180-197)
Brahmi script:
"King and Great Satrap Rudrasimha, son of King and Great Satrap Rudradaman".[63]
An inscription of
Saka Era, that is 185 CE, confirming the expansion of the Western Satraps to the east at that date.[64] There is also an earlier inscription related to Saka rule in Ujjain,[64] as well as a later one, the Kanakerha inscription, related to Saka rule in the area of Vidisha, Sanchi and Eran in the early 4th century.[64]
A memorial pillar with an inscription in the name of "Mahakshatrapa Kumara
Vidharba,[65] and is dated to the 2nd century CE.[66] Although this Great Satrap is not otherwise known from coinage, this memorial pillar is thought to mark the southern extent of the conquests of the Western Satraps, much beyond the traditionally held boundary of the Narmada River.[66] The use of the word "Kumara" may also mean that Rupiamma was the son of a Great Satrap, rather than holding the title himself.[67]
Loss of southern territories to the Satavahanas (end of 2nd century CE)
The south Indian ruler Yajna Sri Satakarni (170-199 CE) of the Satavahana dynasty defeated the Western Satraps in the late 2nd century CE, thereby reconquering their southern regions in western and central India, which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.[68]
Yajna Sri Satakarni left inscriptions in
Sri Yajna Satakarni, in the 7th year of his reign.[72]
There is a possibility, however, that the areas of
Nasik had remained in the hands of the Satavahanas since the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni after his victory over Nahapana, as there are no epigraphical records of the Kardamakas in this area.[54]
Rudrasena II (256–278)
Rudrasena II (256-278 CE). Head right, wearing close-fitting cap / Three-arched hill; group of five pellets to right.[73]
Western Satrap territory extended from the west coast of India to Vidisha/ Sanchi and Eran, from the time of Rudrasena II (256–278) well into the 4th century.[74] Marital alliances with the Ikshvaku of southern India are mentioned in inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda (3rd century CE).[75][76]
The Kshatrapa dynasty seems to have reached a high level of prosperity under the rule of Rudrasena II (256–278), 19th ruler of Kshatrapa.
A marital alliance between the Andhra Ikshvaku and the Western Satraps seems to have occurred during the time of Rudrasena II, as the Andhra Ikshvaku ruler Māṭharīputra Vīrapuruṣadatta (250-275 CE) seems to have had as one of his wives Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of "the ruler of Ujjain", possibly king Rudrasena II.[77][75][78][79] According to an inscription at Nagarjunakonda, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta had multiple wives,[80] including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler of Ujjain (Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika).[77][75][76]
The region of Sanchi-Vidisha was again captured from the Satavahanas during the rule of Rudrasena II (255-278 CE), as shown by finds of Rudrasena II's coinage in the area.[74] The region would then remain under Western Satrap rule until the 4th century CE, as attested by the Kanakerha inscription.[74]
The last Kshatrapa ruler of the Chastana family was
A new family took over, started by the rule of Rudrasimha II (r. 304–348 CE). He declared on his coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) Jivadaman.[84] His rule is partly coeval with that of other rulers, who were his sons as written on their coins and may have been sub-kings: Yasodaman II (r. 317–332 CE) and Rudradaman II (r. 332–348 CE).
Contributions to Buddhism
Under Rudrasimha II, the Western Satraps are known to have maintained their presence in the Central Indian areas of Vidisha/Sanchi/Eran well into the 4th century: during his rule, in 319 CE, a Saka ruler inscribed the Kanakerha inscription,[85] on the hill of Sanchi mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" (dharmaviyagi mahadandanayaka) Sridharavarman (339-368 CE).[74] Another inscription of the same Sridhavarman with his military commander is known from Eran.[74] These inscriptions point to the extent of Saka rule as of the time of Rudrasimha II.
The construction of Buddhist monuments in the area of
Buddhist stupa of Devnimori.[86] The Buddha images in Devnimori clearly show the influence of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,[82] and have been described as examples of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.[82] It has been suggested that the art of Devnimori represented a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise of Gupta Empire art, and that it may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward.[86]
Overall, the Western Satraps may have played a role in the transmission of the
Location of the Sasanian coinage of Sindh, circa 400 CE, in relation with the other polities of the time.
After a period of control of the areas as far as
Indus river, the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by the Sasanian coinage of Sindh.[89][90] It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants of Kushan rule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.[91]
Conquered by the Guptas (c. 335–415 CE)
Main articles:
Gupta-Saka Wars
Central India conquered by Samudragupta (r. 336–380 CE)
The Central Indian region around
Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to the Gupta Emperor,[93] forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".[94]
The campaign soon took a turn for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king, Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife Dhruvadevi in exchange for peace. To avoid the ignominy, the Guptas decided to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. However, Chandragupta changed the plan and himself went to the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then killed Rudrasimha and later his own brother, Ramagupta. Dhruvadevi was then married to Chandragupta.
The Western Satraps were eventually conquered by emperor Chandragupta II. Inscriptions of a victorious Chandragupta II in the year 412-413 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa in Sanchi.[96]
The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles
The Gupta ruler Skandagupta (455-467 CE) is known for a long inscription where he describes himself as "the ruler of the earth" on a large rock at Junagadh, in Gujarat, next to the older inscriptions of Ashoka and Rudradaman I, confirming the Gupta hold on the western regions.[98]
Following these conquests, the silver coins of the Gupta kings
Indo-Greeks) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle (Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the chaitya hill with star and crescent on the reverse.[99]
Gupta Empire coins on the model of the Western Satraps
Coin of Gupta ruler Chandragupta II (r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.[99]
Coin of Gupta ruler Kumaragupta I (r.414–455) (Western territories).[99]
Coin of Gupta ruler Skandagupta (r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.[99]
The campaigns of Chandragupta II brought an end to nearly four centuries of Saka rule on the subcontinent. This period also corresponds to the wane of the very last Kushan rulers in the Punjab and the arrival of the Kidarite Huns, the first Huna invaders from the steppes of Central Asia. Less than a century later, the Alchon Huns in turn invaded northern India, bringing an end to the Gupta Empire and the Classical period of India.
Coinage
The Kshatrapas have a very rich and interesting coinage. It was based on the coinage of the earlier
Indo-Greek
Kings, with Greek or pseudo-Greek legend and stylized profiles of royal busts on the obverse. The reverse of the coins, however, is original and typically depict a thunderbolt and an arrow, and later, a chaitya or three-arched hill and river symbol with a crescent and the sun, within a legend in Brahmi. These coins are very informative, since they record the name of the King, of his father, and the date of issue, and have helped clarify the early history of India.
Regnal dates
Saka era
, therefore 232 CE, clearly appears behind the head of the king.
From the reigns of
Saka era, is usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in Brahmi numerals, allowing for a quite precise datation of the rule of each king.[100] This is a rather uncommon case in Indian numismatics. Some, such as the numismat R.C Senior considered that these dates might correspond to the much earlier Azes era
instead.
Also the father of each king is systematically mentioned in the reverse legends, which allows reconstruction of the regnal succession.
Languages
Chastana.[101] From that time, only the Brahmi script would remain, together with the pseudo-Greek script on the facing, to write the Prakrit language employed by the Western satraps. Occasionally, the legends are in Sanskrit
instead.
The coins of
Castana also have a readable legend "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshatrapasa Castana": "In the reign of the Satrap Castana". After these two rulers, the legend in Greek script becomes denaturated, and seems to lose all signification, only retaining an aesthetic value. By the 4th century, the coins of Rudrasimha II exhibit the following type of meaningless legend in corrupted Greek script: "...ΛIOΛVICIVIIIΛ...".[102]
The coins of the Kshatrapas were also very influential and imitated by neighbouring or later dynasties, such as the Satavahanas, and the
Indo-Greeks) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle (Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the chaitya hill with star and crescent on the reverse.[99]
The Western Satrap coin design was also adopted by the subsequent dynasty of the
Sudarshan Lake of the Satrap period is mentioned in major rock edicts of
Kutch and were moved to the Kutch Museum in Bhuj. They are the earliest dated monuments of the Satrap period and were erected in the time of Rudradaman I.[105]
The large number of stone inscriptions from Kutch and Saurastra as well as hundreds of coins throughout Gujarat are found belonging to the Satrap period. The earlier caves at Sana, Junagadh, Dhank, Talaja, Sidhasar, Prabhas Patan and Ranapar in the Barada Hills are mostly plain and austere in looks except some carvings in the Bava Pyara Caves of Junagadh. They are comparable to Andhra-Satrap period caves in Deccan. As they have almost no carvings, the determination of their date and chronology is difficult. The Uparkot Caves of Junagadh and the Khambhalida Caves belong to the later years of the Satraps.[106] The stupas excavated at Boria and Intwa near Junagadh belonged to the Satrap period. The stupa excavated at Shamlaji probably belonged to this period or to the Gupta period.[107]
Contribution to Sanskrit epigraphy
The inscription of Ushavadata, son-in-law of Nahapana, runs the length of the entrance wall of one of the Nasik caves, over the doors, and is here visible in parts between the pillars. Actual image, and corresponding rubbing. Cave No.10, Nasik Caves.
In what has been described as "the great linguistical paradox of India", Sanskrit inscriptions first appeared much later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.[108] This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influential Edicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE).[108]
Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of the
Indo-Scythian rulers, either the Northern Satraps around Mathura for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India.[109][110] It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".[110]
In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made by Ushavadata, son-in-law of the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, at the front of Cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves. The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features.[112]
The Junagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps ruler Rudradaman I (c. 150 AD, Gujarat) is the first long inscription in fairly standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon, being "the first extensive record in the poetic style" in "more or less standard Sanskrit".[112] The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.[112] It is important because it is likely the prototype of the extensive Sanskrit inscriptions of the Gupta Empire era.[112] These inscriptions are also in the Brāhmī script.[116]
During the reign of Rudradaman, circa 150 CE, it is also known that the Greek writer
Yavanesvara translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit, for "the use of those who could not speak Greek", a translation which became an authority for all later astrology works in India.[117]
The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can also probably be attributed to the influence of the Western Satraps, who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "a
Rudrapurusadatta attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and the Iksvaku rulers of Nagarjunakonda".[110][79] The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism, and parts of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridized Sanskrit.[118] An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism.[119] After the 3rd-century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived.[120]
Possible vassalage to the Kushans
Statue of Chastana Mathura Museum
Inscribed statue of Saka King Chastana, with inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script: Sha-sta-na).[48] Kushan period.
It is still unclear whether the Western Satraps were independent rulers or vassals of the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE). The continued use of the word "Satrap" on their coin would suggest a recognized subjection to a higher ruler, possibly the Kushan emperor.[121]
The Western Satraps (orange) and the Kushan Empire (green), in the 2nd century CE
Also, a statue of
Mathura at the Temple of Mat together with the famous statues of Vima Kadphises and Kanishka. The statue has the inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script: Sha-sta-na).[48] This also would suggest at least alliance and friendship, if not vassalage. Finally Kanishka claims in the Rabatak inscription that his power extends to Ujjain
, the classical capital of the Western Satrap realm. This combined with the presence of the Chastana statue side by side with Kanishka would also suggest Kushan alliance with the Western Satraps.
Finally, following the period of the "
Mathura, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara are known from an inscription in Sarnath to have been feudatories of the Kushans.[6]
Generally, the position taken by modern scholarship is that the Western Satraps were vassals of the Kushans, at least in the early period until
Yaudheyas
, who are usually thought to be Kushan vassals. The question is not considered perfectly settled.
^ abKharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the third year of Kanishka, in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas. Source: "A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson, p ciii
^"The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They were gradually pushed out of the west by the Sakas
(Western Khatrapas). The Kshaharata Nahapana's coins in
the Nasik area indicate that the Western Kshatrapas controlled this region by the 1st century CE. By becoming master of wide regions including Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in the year 41 (58 AD) to that of Mahakshatrapa in the year 46 (63 AD)." in "History of the Andhras"
^"New light on the Paratarajas" Pankaj Tandon p.37
^"Catalogue of Indian coins of the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson. p. LVII
^Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.188
^ abcWorld Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 ʻAlī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 p.42
^ abForeign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 p.150
^Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay. Asiatic Society of Bombay. 1986. p. 219. If Konow is right, then the length of time for Ksatrapa rule in the Nasik-Karla-Junnar region would be at least thirty-fire years.
^Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism, Suresh K. Sharma, Usha Sharma, Mittal Publications, 2004 p.112
^The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield p.131
^Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums, by George Michell, Roli Books Private Limited, 1 mai 2013 p.72
Kshatrapas
rule in the western Deccan during the 1st century." in Guide to Monuments of India 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu - by George Michell, Philip H. Davies, Viking - 1989 Page 374
^Ushavadata also presents himself as a Saka in inscription 14a of Cave No.10 of the Nasik Caves: "[Success !] By permanent charities of Ushavadata, the Saka, [son of Dinika], son-in-law of king Nahapana, the [Kshahara]ta Kshatrapa...." in Epigraphia Indica p.85-86
^ abForeign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 p.131
^A. Jha and D. Rajgor: Studies in the Coinage of the Western Ksatraps, Nashik: Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies, 1992, p. 7.
^ abcJournal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society. The Society. 1920. "The three letters give us a complete name, which I read as Ṣastana (vide facsimile and cast). Dr. Vogel read it as Mastana but that is incorrect for Ma was always written with a circular or triangular knob below with two slanting lines joining the knob"
^The Dynastic Art of the Kushans, John Rosenfield, University of California Press, xxxiv
^Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", p132
^Rapson, "A catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum", p.lx
^"Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Mahakshatrapa named Rupiamma, whose pillar inscription was recently discovered at Pavni in the Bhandara district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 109 f.]. It records the erection of a chhaya-stambha or sculptured pillar at the place. The Satavahanas had, Therefore, to leave Western Maharashtra and Vidarbha. They seem to have repaired to their capital Pratishthana where they continued to abide waiting for a favourable opportunity to oust the Shaka invaders." Source
^Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p385 ("The Yavanajataka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text in astrology, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting David Pingree "The Yavanajataka of Sphujidhvaja" p5)
^"The pillar inscription of Rupiamma from Pauni (1-41) may present a similar example. In it, Rupiamma is described as Mahakhattava-kumära; he is a son or prince of the mahäksatrapa; the title in itself is felt to be sufficient identification" Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies (in German). E.J. Brill. 1974. p. 21.
^"later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered the Southern Dominions of the Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of ships, probably indicating the naval power of the Andras. He not only ruled Aparanta, but probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces". Majumdar, p. 135
^ abcdefBuddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 p58-59
^Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the "Bodhi" dynasty, by British Museum. Dept. of Coins and Medals; Rapson, E. J. (Edward James) p.170
^"During the course of this expedition he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in Pradesh (India), Madhya; Krishnan, V. S. (1982). Madhya Pradesh: District Gazetteers. Government Central Press. p. 28.
Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta: "Self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces through the Garuḍa badge, by the Dēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi
and the Śaka lords and by (rulers) occupying all Island countries, such as Siṁhala and others."
^ abcde"Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc.", p.cli
^Nanavati, J. M. (March 1961). "A Kshatrapa Head from Saurashtra". In Sandesara, B. J. (ed.). Journal Of Oriental Institute Baroda Vol.10. Vol. X. Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. pp. 223–224.
^"In Nagarjunakonda Scythian influence is noticed and the cap and coat of a soldier on a pillar may be cited as an example.", in Sivaramamurti, C. (1961). Indian Sculpture. Allied Publishers. p. 51.
^"A Scythian dvarapala standing wearing his typical draperies, boots and head dress. Distinct ethnic and sartorial characteristics are noreworthy.", in Ray, Amita (1982). Life and Art of Early Andhradesa. Agam. p. 249.
^"The titles "Kshatrap" and "Mahakshatrapa" certainly show that the Western Kshatrapas were originally feudatories" in Rapson, "Coins of the British Museum", p.cv
![Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)[25]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Karla_Amit_R_Mahadik_01.jpg/300px-Karla_Amit_R_Mahadik_01.jpg)
Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)[25]
Right row of columns
Chaitya roof
Capitals![Donative inscription by a Yavana ("Indo-Greek") named Vitasamghata.[33]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Karla_Amit_R_Mahadik_02.jpg/169px-Karla_Amit_R_Mahadik_02.jpg)
Donative inscription by aIndo-Greek") named Vitasamghata.[33]![Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)[25]](/File:Karla_Amit_R_Mahadik_01.jpg)
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![Donative inscription by a Yavana ("Indo-Greek") named Vitasamghata.[33]](/File:Karla_Amit_R_Mahadik_02.jpg)
Front
Veranda
Interior
Chaitya and Umbrellas
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![Coin of Gupta ruler Chandragupta II (r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.[99]](/File:Silver_Coin_of_Chandragupta_II.jpg)
![Coin of Gupta ruler Kumaragupta I (r.414–455) (Western territories).[99]](/File:Silver_Coin_of_Kumaragupta_I.jpg)
![Coin of Gupta ruler Skandagupta (r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.[99]](/File:Gupta_Kings._Skandagupta._AD_455-467.jpg)
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