Western astrology
Astrology |
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Background |
Traditions |
Branches |
Astrological signs |
Symbols |
Western astrology is the system of astrology most popular in Western countries. Western astrology is historically based on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos (2nd century CE), which in turn was a continuation of Hellenistic and ultimately Babylonian traditions.
Western astrology is largely horoscopic, that is, it is a form of divination based on the construction of a horoscope for an exact moment, such as a person's birth as well as location (since time zones may or may not affect a person's birth chart), in which various cosmic bodies are said to have an influence. Astrology in western popular culture is often reduced to sun sign astrology, which considers only the individual's date of birth (i.e. the "position of the Sun" at that date).
Astrology is a pseudoscience and has consistently failed experimental and theoretical verification.[1][2][3]
Astrology was widely considered a respectable academic and scientific field before
Core principles
Part of a series on |
Hermeticism |
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A central principle of astrology is integration within the cosmos. The individual, Earth, and its environment are viewed
As opposed to Sidereal astrology, Western astrology evaluates a person's birth based on the alignments of the stars and planets from the perspective on earth instead of in space.
At the heart of astrology is the metaphysical principle that mathematical relationships express qualities or 'tones' of energy which manifest in numbers, visual angles, shapes and sounds – all connected within a pattern of proportion. An early example is Ptolemy, who wrote influential texts on all these topics.[7] Al-Kindi, in the 9th century, developed Ptolemy's ideas in De Aspectibus which explores many points of relevance to astrology and the use of planetary aspects.[8][9]
The zodiac
The zodiac is the belt or band of constellations through which the Sun, Moon, and planets move on their journey across the sky. Astrologers noted these constellations and so attached a particular significance to them. Over time they developed the system of twelve
Due to a phenomenon called
The twelve signs
In modern Western astrology the
Latin Name | Gloss | Symbol | Unicode Character | Approximate Sun Sign Dates | Ecliptic Longitude (a ≤ λ < b) |
House | Polarity
|
Modality
|
Triplicity | Modern Ruler | Classic Ruler | Greek name | Sanskrit name
|
Sumero-Babylonian name[14]
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aries | The Ram | ♈︎ | March 21 – April 20 | 0° to 30° | 1 | Positive | Cardinal | Fire | Mars | Κριός (Krios) | Meṣa (मेष) | MUL LU.ḪUN.GA Dumuzi
| ||
Taurus | The Bull | ♉︎ | April 21 – May 20 | 30° to 60° | 2 | Negative | Fixed | Earth | Venus | Ταῦρος (Tauros) | Vṛṣabha (वृषभ) | MULGU4.AN.NA "Divine Bull of Heaven" | ||
Gemini | The Twins | ♊︎ | May 21 – June 20 | 60° to 90° | 3 | Positive | Mutable | Air | Mercury | Δίδυμοι (Didymoi) | Mithuna (मिथुन) | MULMAŠ.TAB.BA.GAL.GAL "Great Twins" (Castor & Pollux) | ||
Cancer | The Crab | ♋︎ | June 21 – July 22 | 90° to 120° | 4 | Negative | Cardinal | Water | Moon | Καρκίνος (Karkinos) | Karka (कर्क) | MULAL.LUL "Crayfish" | ||
Leo | The Lion | ♌︎ | July 23 – August 22 | 120° to 150° | 5 | Positive | Fixed | Fire | Sun | Λέων (Leōn) | Siṃha (सिंह) | MULUR.GU.LA "Lion" | ||
Virgo | The Maiden
|
♍︎ | August 23 – September 22 | 150° to 180° | 6 | Negative | Mutable | Earth | Mercury | Παρθένος (Parthenos) | Kanyā (कन्या) | MULAB.SIN "The Furrow"* *"The goddess Shala's ear of grain" | ||
Libra | The Scales | ♎︎ | September 23 – October 22 | 180° to 210° | 7 | Positive | Cardinal | Air | Venus | Ζυγός (Zygos) | Tulā (तुला) | MULZIB.BA.AN.NA "Scales" | ||
Scorpio | The Scorpion | ♏︎ | October 23 – November 21 | 210° to 240° | 8 | Negative | Fixed | Water | Pluto (or) | Mars | Σκoρπίος (Skorpios)[16] | Vṛścika (वृश्चिक) | MULGIR.TAB "Scorpion" | |
Sagittarius | The Archer (Centaur) | ♐︎ | November 22 – December 21 | 240° to 270° | 9 | Positive | Mutable | Fire | Jupiter | Τοξότης (Toxotēs) | Dhanuṣa (धनुष) | MUL PA.BIL.SAG, Nedu "soldier "
| ||
Capricorn | The Goat | () | ♑︎ | December 22 – January 19 | 270° to 300° | 10 | Negative | Cardinal | Earth | Saturn | Αἰγόκερως (Aigokerōs) | Makara (मकर) | MULSUḪUR.MAŠ "Goat-Fish" of Enki | |
Aquarius | The Water-bearer | ♒︎ | January 20 – February 18 | 300° to 330° | 11 | Positive | Fixed | Air | Uranus | Saturn | Ὑδροχόος (Hydrokhoos) | Kumbha (कुंभ) | MULGU.LA "Great One", later qâ "pitcher" | |
Pisces | The Fish | ♓︎ | February 19 – March 20 | 330° to 360° | 12 | Negative | Mutable | Water | Neptune | Jupiter | Ἰχθύες (Ikhthyes) | Mīna (मीन) | MULSIM.MAḪ "Tail of the Swallow"; DU.NU.NU "fish-cord" |
- Note: these are only approximations and the exact date on which the sign of the sun changes varies from year to year.
Zodiac sign for an individual depends on the placement of planets and the ascendant in that sign. If a person has nothing placed in a particular sign, that sign will play no active role in their personality. On the other hand, a person with, for example, both the sun and moon in Cancer, will strongly display the characteristics of that sign in their make up.
Sun-sign astrology
Newspapers often print astrology columns which purport to provide guidance on what might occur in a day in relation to the sign of the zodiac that included the sun when the person was born. Astrologers refer to this as the "sun sign", but it is often commonly called the "star sign". These predictions are vague or general; so much so that even practicing astrologers consider them of little to no value on their own.[17] Experiments have shown that when people are shown a newspaper horoscope for their own sign along with a newspaper horoscope for a different sign, they judge them to be equally accurate on the average.[18] Other tests have been performed on complete, personalized horoscopes cast by professional astrologers, and have shown no correlation between the horoscope results and the person it was cast for.[19]
The planets
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2009) |
In modern Western astrology the planets represent basic drives or impulses in the human psyche. These planets differ from the definition of a planet in astronomy in that the Sun, Moon, and recently, Pluto are all considered to be planets for the purposes of astrology.[20] Each planet is also said to be the ruler of one or two zodiac signs. The three outer planets (Uranus, Neptune, Pluto) have each been assigned rulership of a zodiac sign by astrologers.[21] Traditionally rulership of the signs was, according to Ptolemy, based on seasonal derivations and astronomical measurement, whereby the luminaries being the brightest planets were given rulership of the brightest months of the year and Saturn the coldest furthest classical planet was given to the coldest months of the year, with the other planets ruling the remaining signs as per astronomical measurement. It is noteworthy that the modern rulerships do not follow the same logic.
Classical planets
The astrological 'planets' are the seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients. The Sun and Moon, also known as 'the lights', are included as they were thought to act like the astronomical planets. Astrologers call inner planets Mercury, Venus and Mars, the 'personal planets',[22] as they represent the most immediate drives. The 'lights' symbolise respectively the existential and sensitive fundamentals of the individuality.
The following table summarizes the rulership by the seven classically known planets[23] of each of the twelve astrological signs,[24] together with their effects on world events, people and the earth itself as understood in the Middle Ages.[25]
Symbol | Planet[23] | Rules the sign[24] | Effect on world events[25] | Person's nature[25] | Effect in life[25] | Effect in earth[25] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sun
|
Leo | Wisdom, generosity, 'sunny' disposition | Good fortune | Gold | ||
Moon
|
Cancer | Wandering | Travel, lunacy | Silver | ||
Mercury
|
Gemini and Virgo | Action | Changeability, eagerness, quickness, 'mercurial' temperament | Rapid change | Mercury (quicksilver) | |
Venus
|
Libra and Taurus | Fortunate events | Beauty, amorousness | Good luck | Copper[d] | |
Mars
|
Aries, classically also Scorpio | War | Strength, endurance, 'martial' temperament | Conflicts, misfortune | Iron | |
Jupiter
|
Sagittarius, classically also Pisces | Good times, prosperity | Cheerful, magnanimous, 'jovial' temperament | Good fortune | Tin | |
Saturn
|
Capricorn, classically also Aquarius | Disastrous events | Wisdom, stability, persistence, 'saturnine' temperament | Accidents, disease, treachery, bad luck | Lead |
Modern modifications to the Ptolemaic system
Additional planets
These are the planets discovered in modern times, which have since been assigned meanings by Western astrologers.[21]
Symbol | Planet | Representing | Rules the sign | Claimed effects on world events | Claimed effects on people |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Uranus
|
(a) Platinum as a planetary metal; (b) monogram 'H' for planet's discoverer, William Herschel[26] | Aquarius | Innovation, technology[27] | Sudden or disruptive change[28] | |
Neptune | Trident, weapon of sea-god Neptune[29] | Pisces[30] |
Change of contemporary musical taste || Confusion, sensitivity[30] | ||
⬆️ | Pluto
|
(a) Pluto's bident; (b) PL monogram for astronomer Percival Lowell who predicted a planet beyond
Neptune;[31] c) Represents an upward arrow, which indicates liberation from form in Esoteric Astrology |
Scorpio |
Demolition of old, bad political systems|| Transformation,[32] fate, death |
Sidereal and tropical astrology
There are two camps of thought among western astrologers about the "starting point", 0 degrees Aries, in the zodiac.
As the Earth spins on its axis, it "wobbles" like a top, causing the vernal equinox to move gradually backwards against the star background, (a phenomenon known as the
This phenomenon gives us the conceptual basis for the Age of Aquarius, whose "dawning" coincides with the movement of the vernal equinox across the cusp from Pisces to Aquarius in the star background.
The moon's nodes
Also important in astrology are the
- – North or ascending Node. Also the ruler of Pathways and Choices.
- – South or descending Node. Also the ruler of Karma and the Past.
Essential dignity
In astrology, "essential dignity" is the strength of a planet or point's zodiac position, judged only by its position by sign and degree, what the pre-eminent 17th-century astrologer
The horoscope
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2009) |
Western astrology is based mainly upon the construction of a
Interpretation
In Western horoscopic astrology the interpretation of a horoscope is governed by:
- The position of the planets in the astrological signs of the zodiac,
- The position of the planets in the houses of the horoscope,
- The position of the primary angles of the horoscope, namely the imum coeliaxis),
- The angles formed by the planets relative to each other and the primary angles, called aspects
- The position of deduced astronomical entities, such as the Lunar nodes.
Some astrologers also use the position of various mathematical points, such as the Arabic parts.
Various techniques are used, with different degrees of complexity, to provide what astrologers claim are forecasts or predictive statements about the future, as well as to analyse past and current events. These include transits, progressions, and primary directions. Different branches of astrology, such as horary and electional astrology, have their own specific sets of techniques.
The primary angles
There are
- Asc - The natal chartis calculated. In creating a horoscope the ascendant is traditionally placed as the left-hand side point of the chart. In most house systems the ascendant lies on the cusp of the 1st house of the horoscope.
The ascendant is generally considered the most important and personalized angle in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. It signifies a person's awakening consciousness, in the same way that the Sun's appearance on the eastern horizon signifies the dawn of a new day.[36] Due to the fact that the ascendant is specific to a particular time and place, it signifies the individual environment and conditioning that a person receives during their upbringing, and also the circumstances of their childhood. For this reason, the ascendant is also concerned with how a person has learned to present themself to the world, especially in public and in impersonal situations.[37]
The opposite point to the ascendant in the west is the
- Mc - The midheavenor medium coeli is the point on the ecliptic that is furthest above the plane of the horizon. For events occurring where the planes of the ecliptic and the horizon coincide, the limiting position for these points is located 90° from the ascendant. For astrologers, the midheaven traditionally indicates a person's career, status, aim in life, aspirations, public reputation, and life goal. In quadrant house systems the midheaven lies on the cusp of the 10th house of the horoscope.
The opposite point to the midheaven is known as the
The houses
The horoscope is divided by astrologers into 12 portions called the houses. The houses of the horoscope are interpreted as being 12 different spheres of life or activity. There are various ways of calculating the houses in the horoscope or birth chart. However, there is no dispute about their meanings, and the 12 houses[38]
Many modern astrologers assume that the houses relate to their corresponding signs, i.e. that the first house has a natural affinity with the first sign, Aries, and so on.
Aspects
The aspects are the angles the planets make to each other in the horoscope, and also to the ascendant, midheaven, descendant and nadir. The aspects are measured by the angular distance along the ecliptic in degrees and minutes of celestial longitude between two points, as viewed from the earth.[39] They indicate focal points in the horoscope where the energies involved are given extra emphasis. The more exact the angle, the more powerful the aspect, although an allowance of a few degrees each side of the aspect called an orb is allowed for interpretation. The following are the aspects in order of importance:[40][41]
- - Conjunction 0° (orb ±10°). The conjunction is a major point in the chart, giving strong emphasis to the planets involved. The planets will act together to outside stimulus and act on each other.[40][41]
- - Opposition 180° (orb ±10°). The opposition is indicative of tension, conflict and confrontation, due to the polarity between the two elements involved. Stress arises when one is used over the other, causing an imbalance; but the opposition can work well if the two parts of the aspect are made to complement each other in a synthesis.[40][41]
- - Square 90°(orb ±7.5°). The square indicates frustration, inhibitions, disruption and inner conflict, but can become a source of energy and activation to a person determined to overcome limitations.[40][41]
- - Sextile 60°(orb ±5°). The sextile is similar to the trine, but of less significance. It indicates ease of communication between the two elements involved, with compatibility and harmony between them.[40][41]
- - Quincunx 150°(orb ±2.5°). The quincunx indicates difficulty and stress, due to incompatible elements being forced together. It can mean an area of self-neglect in a person's life (especially health), or obligations being forced on a person. The quincunx can vary from minor to quite major in impact.[40][41]
- - Semisextile 30° (orb ±1.25°). Slight in effect. Indicates an area of life where a conscious effort to be positive will have to be made.[40][41]
- - Semisquare 45°(orb ±2.5°). Indicates somewhat difficult circumstance. Similar in effect to semisextile.[40][41]
- Q -
- bQ -
- ℞ - Retrograde: A planet is retrograde when it appears to move backwards across the sky when seen from the earth. Although it is not an aspect, some astrologers believe that it should be included for consideration in the chart. Planets which are retrograde in the natal chart are considered by them to be potential weak points.[40][41]
Astrology and science
The majority of professional astrologers rely on performing astrology-based personality tests and making relevant predictions about the remunerator's future.[42] Those who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary".[43][44][45]
Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity,[42]: 85 [46] and as such, is regarded as pseudoscience.[1][2][e] There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well understood, basic aspects of biology and physics.[48][f]
Where astrology has made
See also
- Zodiac
- Astrological symbols
- Astrological signs
- List of asteroids in astrology
- Chinese zodiac
- Circle of stars
- Cusp (astrology)
- Elements of the zodiac
- Natal astrology
- Synoptical astrology
- Tarotscope
Notes
- ^ "the entire universe is alive in mutual concord of its elements and is driven by the pulse of reason, since a single spirit dwells in all its parts and, speeding through all things, nourishes it like a living creature".[5]
- ^ Al-Kindi (9th century) is clarifying this point where he says in his text On the Stellar Rays, ch.4: "... we say that one thing acts with its elemental rays on another, but according to the exquisite truth it does not act but only the celestial harmony acts".
- ^ "The doctrine of the Pythagoreans was a combination of science and mysticism... Like Anaximenes they viewed the Universe as one integrated, living organism, surrounded by Divine Air (or more literally 'Breath'), which permeates and animates the whole cosmos and filters through to individual creatures... By partaking of the core essence of the Universe, the individual is said to act as a microcosm in which all the laws in the macrocosm of the Universe are at work".[6]
- ^ Lewis notes that Venus was associated with the island of Cyprus, the classical source of copper.
- ^ "To optimise the chances of finding even remote relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g. month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudo-scientific) concept of astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book Astrology: Science or superstition? by Eysenck and Nias (1982)."[47]
- ^ "About three-fourths of Americans hold at least one pseudoscientific belief; i.e., they believed in at least 1 of the 10 survey items[29]" ... "Those 10 items were extrasensory perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts/that spirits of dead people can come back in certain places/situations, telepathy/communication between minds without using traditional senses, clairvoyance/the power of the mind to know the past and predict the future, astrology/that the position of the stars and planets can affect people's lives, that people can communicate mentally with someone who has died, witches, reincarnation/the rebirth of the soul in a new body after death, and channeling/allowing a "spirit-being" to temporarily assume control of a body".[49][50]
References
- ^ a b Hansson, Sven Ove; Zalta, Edward N. "Science and Pseudo-Science". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved July 6, 2012.
- ^ a b "Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List". Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Archived from the original on December 30, 2011. Retrieved September 18, 2014.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.)
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 20513617.
- ^ Manilius (77) p.87-89 (II.64-67)
- ^ Houlding (2000), p. 28 [full citation needed]
- ^ Smith (1996), p. 2
- ^ Lindberg (1997), p. 245
- ^ Smith (1996), p. 56
- ^ Wood (1970)
- ^ Lofthus (1983), p. 8
- ^ Pelletier & Cataldo (1984), pp. 24–33
- ^ Pottenger (1991), pp. 31–36
- ^ MUL.APIN; Peter Whitfield, History of Astrology (2001); W. Muss-Arnolt, The Names of the Assyro-Babylonian Months and Their Regents, Journal of Biblical Literature (1892).
- ^ "ccpo/qpn/Agru[1]". oracc.iaas.upenn.edu.
- ^ Alternative form: Σκορπίων Skorpiōn. Later form (with synizesis): Σκορπιός.
- ^ "Why Is My Rising Sign SO Different From My Sun Sign? | Horoscope.com". www.horoscope.com. Retrieved June 7, 2022.
- ^ The Forer Effect
- ^ The AstroTest Archived January 4, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, An account of a test of the predictive power of astrology, with references to other experiments.
- ISBN 0-914918-16-8.
- ^ ISBN 0916360601.
- ISBN 9780877287414.
- ^ a b Planet description
- ^ a b "Signs description". Archived from the original on October 21, 2000. Retrieved April 23, 2009.
- ^ a b c d e Lewis (1994), pp. 105–109
- Bibcode:1917Obs....40..306H. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
- ^ Bidisha (December 9, 2011). "I'm starry-eyed about horoscopes". The Guardian. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
- ^ Parker & Parker (2007), p. 237
- ^ "Neptune's Symbol". NASA. Archived from the original on May 10, 2015. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
- ^ a b Parker & Parker (2007), pp. 240–242
- ^ "Pluto's Symbol". NASA. Archived from the original on May 5, 2013. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
- ^ Padel, Ruth (April 20, 2013). "Pluto by Glyn Maxwell – review". The Guardian. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
- ISBN 0-86690-427-1
- ^ Parker & Parker (1990), p. 149
- ^ Lilly (2005), p. 101
- ^ Mayo (1991), p. 71
- ^ Fenton (1989), pp. 13–14
- ^ Fenton (1991), pp. 117–118
- ^ Mayo (1991), p. 97
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Pelletier & Cataldo (1984), pp. 57–60
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Fenton (1991), pp. 137–139
- ^ a b Bennett et al. (2007), pp. 82–84
- ^ "Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists". The Humanist, September/October 1975. Archived from the original on March 18, 2009.
- ^ The Humanist Archived October 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, volume 36, no.5 (1976).
- ^ Bok, Jerome & Kurtz (1982), pp. 14–18
- ^ Zarka (2011)
- ^ Hartmann, Reuter & Nyborg (2006), p. 1350
- ^ Janis (1989), p. 249
- ISBN 978-0-917586-05-7.
- ^ "Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". science and engineering indicators 2006. National Science Foundation. Archived from the original on August 18, 2015. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- ^ Zarka (2011), p. 424
- ^ Carlson (1985)
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- Bok, Bart J.; Jerome, Lawrence E.; Kurtz, Paul (1982). "Objections to Astrology: a Statement by 186 Leading Scientists". In Patrick Grim (ed.). Philosophy of Science and the Occult. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-572-0.
- (PDF) from the original on February 16, 2019. Retrieved September 18, 2014.
- Fenton, Sasha (1989). Rising Signs. London: Aquarian Press.[non-primary source needed]
- Fenton, Sasha (1991). Understanding Astrology. London: Aquarian Press.[non-primary source needed]
- Hartmann, Peter; Reuter, Martin; Nyborg, Helmuth (2006). "The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: a large-scale study". Personality and Individual Differences. 40 (7): 1349–1362. .
- Janis, Allen (1989). "Astronomy and science fiction". In Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (eds.). Cosmic Perspectives: Essays Dedicated to the Memory of M.K.V. Bappu. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 233–249. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.
- ISBN 978-0-521-47735-2.
- Lilly, William (2005) [1647]. David R. Roell (ed.). Christian Astrology. Astrology Center of America. ]
- Lindberg, David C. (1997). "Roger Bacon on light, vision, and the universal emanation". In Jeremiah Hackett (ed.). Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays 1996. Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters. Vol. 57. Brill. pp. 243–275. ISBN 9789004100152.
- Lofthus, Myrna (1983). A Spiritual Approach to Astrology. Sebastopol, CA: CRCS Publications. ]
- Mayo, Jeff (1991). Teach Yourself Astrology. London: Hodder & Stoughton.[non-primary source needed]
- Parker, Julia; Parker, Derek (1990). The New Compleat Astrologer. New York, NY: Crescent Books.[non-primary source needed]
- Parker, Julia; Parker, Derek (2007). Astrology. Dorling Kindersley.[non-primary source needed]
- Pelletier, Robert; Cataldo, Leonard (1984). Be Your Own Astrologer: All You Need to Know to Draw Up Your Own Birth Chart. London: Pan Books. ]
- Pottenger, Maritha (1991). Astro Essentials: Planets in Sign, House and Aspect. San Diego, CA: ACS Publications. ]
- Smith, A. Mark (1996). "Introduction". In Ptolemy; A. Mark Smith (eds.). Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics with Introduction and Commentary. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 86. American Philosophical Society. pp. 1–59. ISBN 9780871698629.
- Weiss, Piero; Taruskin, Richard (2007). "Pythagoras and the numerical properties of music". Music in the Western World (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 2–5. ISBN 9780534585990.
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External links
- The Astrotest - An account of a test of the predictive power of astrology, with references to other experiments.