Western world
The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various
Modern-day Western world essentially encompasses the nations and states where civilization or culture is considered
The English word "West" initially meant an adverb for direction. By the Middle Ages, Europeans began to use it to describe Europe. Since the eighteenth century, following
Between the eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, prominent countries in the West such as the United States, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand have been once envisioned as ethnocracies for whites.[33][34][35] Racism is cited as a contributing factor to Westerners' colonization of the New World, which today constitutes much of the "geographical" Western world.[36][37] Starting from the late 1960s, certain parts of the Western World have become notable for their diversity due to immigration.[38][39] The idea of "the West" over the course of time has evolved from a directional concept to a socio-political concept that had been temporalized and rendered as a concept of the future bestowed with notions of progress and modernity.[30]
Introduction
The origins of Western civilization can be traced back to the
In ancient Greece and Rome, individuals identified primarily as subjects of states, city-states, or empires, rather than as members of Western civilization. The distinct identification of Western civilization began to crystallize with the rise of Christianity during the Late Roman Empire. In this period, peoples in Europe started to perceive themselves as part of a unique civilization, differentiating from others like Islam, giving rise to the concept of Western civilization. By the 15th century, Renaissance intellectuals solidified this concept, associating Western civilization not only with Christianity but also with the intellectual and political achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans.[58]
Historians, such as
There was debate among some in the 1960s as to whether Latin America as a whole is in a category of its own.[79]
Culture
Western culture is characterized by a host of artistic, philosophic, literary and
While traditionally shunned as a mainspring of Western civilization in favour of early Aegean cultures, the
Historical divisions
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The West of the Mediterranean Region during the Antiquity
The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the
Ancient Greek and Hellenistic worlds (13th–1st centuries BC)
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The
The then Hellenic division between the
According to a few writers, the future conquest of parts of the Roman Empire by Germanic peoples and the subsequent dominance by the Western Christian papacy (which held combined political and spiritual authority, a state of affairs absent from Greek civilization in all its stages), resulted in a rupture of the previously existing ties between the Latin West and Greek thought,[127] including Christian Greek thought.[citation needed]
Ancient Roman world (6th century BC – AD 395–476)
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The
In AD 395, a few decades before its Western collapse, the Roman Empire formally split into a
The Roman Empire is where the idea of "the West" began to emerge.[g]
The
The birth of the European West during the Middle Ages
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This internal conflict of legacies had possibly emerged since the
The Eastern Roman Empire included lands south-west of the Black Sea and bordering on the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of the Adriatic Sea. This division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires was later reflected in the administration of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Orthodox churches, with Rome and Constantinople debating over whether either city was the capital of Western religion.[citation needed]
As the
In AD 800 under
The earliest concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simple geographic term) is believed to have been formed by
The
In 1071, the Byzantine army was defeated by the
The Holy Roman Empire would dissolve on 6 August 1806, after the French Revolution and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon.
The
This very profitable
Both these religious wars ended with the
Expansion of the West: the Era of Colonialism (15th–20th centuries)
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"Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."
Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[150]
In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of European travelers, many of them Christian missionaries, had sought to cultivate trading with Asia and Africa. With the Crusades came the relative contraction of the Orthodox Byzantine's large silk industry in favor of Catholic Western Europe and the rise of Western Papacy. The most famous of these merchant travelers pursuing East–west trade was Venetian Marco Polo. But these journeys had little permanent effect on east–west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia: namely the new Ming rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism by European missionaries and merchants. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Turks consolidated control over the eastern Mediterranean, closing off key overland trade routes.[citation needed]
The
Due to the reach of these empires, Western institutions expanded throughout the world. This process of influence (and imposition) began with the
The concepts of a world of
The course of
In the early-19th century, the systematic
During the socioeconomically optimistic and innovative decades of the
At the close of the Spanish–American War in 1898 the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam and Cuba were ceded to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. The US quickly emerged as the new imperial power in East Asia and in the Pacific Ocean area. The Philippines continued to fight against colonial rule in the Philippine–American War.[172]
By 1913, the
Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries)
The achievements of the 17th century included the invention of the
A common metanarrative of the Enlightenment is the "secularization theory". Modernity, as understood within the framework, means a total break with the past. Innovation and science are the good, representing the modern values of
French writer
Cold War (1947–1991)
During the Cold War, a new definition emerged. Earth was divided into three "worlds". The First World, analogous in this context to what was called the West, was composed of NATO members and other countries aligned with the United States.
The Second World was the
The Third World consisted of countries, many of which were
A number of countries did not fit comfortably into this neat definition of partition, including Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, and
The 1980s advent of Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the Cold War following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Cold War II context
In a debated
Modern definitions
The exact scope of the Western world is somewhat subjective in nature, depending on whether cultural, economic, spiritual or political criteria are employed. It is a generally accepted Western view to recognize the existence of at least three "major worlds" (or "cultures", or "civilizations"), broadly in contrast with the Western: the Eastern world, the Arab and the African worlds, with no clearly specified boundaries. Additionally, Latin American and Orthodox European worlds are sometimes either a sub-civilization within Western civilization or separately considered "akin" to the West.
Many anthropologists, sociologists and historians oppose "the West and the Rest" in a categorical manner.[199] The same has been done by Malthusian demographers with a sharp distinction between European and non-European family systems. Among anthropologists, this includes Durkheim, Dumont, and Lévi-Strauss.[199]
Since the fall of the iron curtain the following countries are generally accepted as the Western world:
Cultural definition
In modern usage, Western world refers to Europe and to areas whose populations largely originate from Europe, through the Age of Discovery's imperialism.[201][26][202]
In the 20th century, Christianity declined in influence in many Western countries, mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years,[203] and also elsewhere. Secularism (separating religion from politics and science) increased. However, while church attendance is in decline, in some Western countries (i.e. Italy, Poland, and Portugal), more than half of the people state that religion is important,[204] and most Westerners nominally identify themselves as Christians (e.g. 59% in the United Kingdom) and attend church on major occasions, such as Christmas and Easter. In the Americas, Christianity continues to play an important societal role, though in areas such as Canada, a low level of religiosity is common due to a European-type secularization. The official religions of the United Kingdom and some Nordic countries are forms of Christianity, while the majority of European countries have no official religion. Despite this, Christianity, in its different forms, remains the largest faith in most Western countries.[205]
Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world, where 70% are Christians.[206] A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76.2% of Europeans, 73.3% in Oceania, and about 86.0% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and the Caribbean and 77.4% in Northern America) described themselves as Christians.[206][207]
Since the mid-twentieth century, the west became known for its
Certain parts of the Western World have become notable for their diversity since the late 1960s.[38][39] Earlier, between the eighteenth century to mid-twentieth century, prominent western countries like the United States, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand have been once envisioned as homelands for whites. [33][34][35] Racism has been noted as a contributing factor to Westerners' colonization of the New World, which makes up much of the geographical West today.[36][37]
Countries in the Western world are also the most keen on digital and televisual media technologies, as they were in the postwar period on television and radio: from 2000 to 2014, the Internet's market penetration in the West was twice that in non-Western regions.[209]
Latin America
American political scientist, adviser and academic Samuel P. Huntington considered Latin America as separate from the Western world for the purpose of his geopolitical analysis.[1] Huntington's view has, however, been contested on a number of occasions as biased.[210][211] Huntington also states that, while in general researchers consider that the West has three main components (European, North American and Latin American), in his view, Latin America has followed a different development path from Europe and North America. Although it is a scion of European (mainly Spanish and Portuguese) civilization, it also incorporates, to an extent, elements of indigenous American civilizations, absent from North America and Europe. It has had a corporatist and authoritarian culture that Europe had to a much lesser extent. Both Europe and North America felt the effects of the Reformation and combined Catholic and Protestant culture. Historically, Latin America has been only Catholic, although this is changing due to the influx of Protestants into the region. Some regions in Latin America incorporate indigenous cultures, which did not exist in Europe and were effectively annihilated in the United States, and whose importance oscillates between two extremes: Mexico, Central America, Peru and Bolivia, on the one hand, and Argentina and Chile on the other.[212] However, he does mention that the modus operandi of the Catholic Church was to incorporate native elements of pagan European cultures into the general dogma of Catholicism, and the Native American elements could be perceived in the same way.[213]
Subjectively, Latin Americans are divided on whether to consider themselves part of the West. A vast corpus of bibliographical material produced by Latin Americans and North Americans exposes in detail their cultural differences. Huntington goes on to mention that Latin America could be considered a sub-civilization within Western civilization, or a separate civilization intimately related to the West and divided as to its belonging to it. While the second option is the most appropriate and useful for an analysis focused on the international political consequences of civilizations, including relations between Latin America, on the one hand, and North America and Europe, on the other, he also mentions that the underlying conflict of Latin America belonging to the West must eventually be addressed in order to develop a cohesive Latin American identity.[214][215]
Other countries
Most of
The Philippines, although geographically part of the Eastern world and having a majority population that does not possess European ethnic origins aside from a significant minority, maintains strong Western-based influences in its culture.[225] Cape Verde also has significant influence from the Western world due to Portuguese colonization, seen through the country's language (Portuguese), music, art[226] and the prevalence of Christianity.[227] The country's population is also overall, a mixture of African and European descent.[228] European influence is also evident in Namibia, which has a sizeable minority of European descent and was previously administered by Germany and then South Africa.[229][230][231]
Economic definition
The term "Western world" is sometimes interchangeably used with the term First World or developed countries, stressing the difference between First World and the Third World or developing countries. This usage occurs despite the fact that many countries that may be culturally Western are developing countries – in fact, a significant percentage of the Americas are developing countries. It is also used despite many developed countries or regions not being culturally Western (e.g. Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao). Privatization policies (involving government enterprises and public services) and multinational corporations are often considered a visible sign of Western nations' economic presence, especially in Third World countries, and represent a common institutional environment for powerful politicians, enterprises, trade unions and firms, bankers and thinkers of the Western world.[232][233][234][235][236]
Views on torn countries
According to Samuel P. Huntington, some countries are torn on whether they are Western or not, with typically the national leadership pushing for Westernization, while historical, cultural and traditional forces remain largely non-Western.[237] These include Turkey, whose political leadership has since the 1920s tried to Westernize the predominantly Muslim country with only 3% of its territory within Europe. It is his chief example of a "torn country" that is attempting to join Western civilization.[1] The country's elite started the Westernization efforts, beginning with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who took power as the first president of the modern Turkish nation-state in 1923, imposed western institutions and dress, removed the Arabic alphabet and embraced the Latin alphabet. It joined NATO and since the 1960s has been seeking to join the European Union with very slow progress.[238]
Other views
A series of scholars of civilization, including Arnold J. Toynbee, Alfred Kroeber and Carroll Quigley have identified and analyzed "Western civilization" as one of the civilizations that have historically existed and still exist today. Toynbee entered into quite an expansive mode, including as candidates those countries or cultures who became so heavily influenced by the West as to adopt these borrowings into their very self-identity. Carried to its limit, this would in practice include almost everyone within the West, in one way or another. In particular, Toynbee refers to the intelligentsia formed among the educated elite of countries impacted by the European expansion of centuries past. While often pointedly nationalist, these cultural and political leaders interacted within the West to such an extent as to change both themselves and the West.[79]
The
Palestinian-American literary critic
The West has been recognized for its politically individualist beliefs.[240] The idea of "the West" over the course of time has evolved from a directional concept to a sociopolitical concept, and has been temporalized and rendered as a concept of the future bestowed with notions of progress and modernity.[30] The progress of the West in the attainment of Women's rights since the late nineteenth century has been noticeable; in the twenty-first century, women in general of the West have been considered the "liberated, autonomous subjects" in comparison to women from 'other cultures' who are still becoming so. Feminism has often been "criticized for being inherently white and western."[241][242]
-
Division of the Roman Empire after 395 into western and eastern part. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire.
-
Latin alphabet world distribution. The dark green areas show the countries where this alphabet is the sole official (or de facto official) national script. The light green places show the countries where the alphabet co-exists with other scripts.
-
Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink.
-
Relative degree of religiosity by country. Based on a 2006–2008 worldwide survey by Gallup.
-
Humanlanguage families
-
Western Palearctic, a part of the Palearctic realm, one of the eight biogeographic realmsdividing the Earth's surface
-
Geopolitical Occident of Europe, according to the Intermediate Region theory of Dimitri Kitsikis
-
European Union (in blue) and European Free Trade Association (in green)
-
Human Development Index Report (based on 2018 data, published in 2019)
-
Legal systems of the world
-
Secular states in blue
-
Relative geographic prevalence of Christianity versus the second most prevalent religion Islam and lack of either religion, in 2006
See also
- Americanization
- Americas
- Anglicisation
- Anglophone
- Atlanticism
- Datsu-A Ron
- Eastern world
- East–West dichotomy
- Europeanisation
- Far West
- First World
- Francophonie
- Free world
- Global North and Global South
- Global Northwest, a highly coterminous region
- Golden billion
- Hispanophone
- History of Western civilization
- Maghreb
- Mid-Atlantic English
- Monroe Doctrine
- Three-world model
- Western esotericism
- Western hemisphere
- Western philosophy
- Western civilization
- Anti-Western sentiment
Organisations
- European Council
- European Economic Area (EEA)
- European Union (EU)
- G10 currencies
- Group of Seven (G7)
- Group of Twelve (G12)
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Representation in the United Nations
Notes
- ^ Comprising Australia and New Zealand, excluding the Pacific island nations.
- Baltics and territories of Western European nations geographically located in the coast of North Africa, such as Madeira and the Canary Islands.
- ^ Latin America's status as a part of the West is undisputed by most researchers and disputed by others.[4]
- ^ See [40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]
See [49][50][51][52][53]
Citations
- ^ a b c d e THE WORLD OF CIVILIZATIONS: POST-1990 scanned image Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ ISBN 978-0-684-84441-1.)
The origin of western civilization is usually dated to 700 or 800 AD. In general, researchers consider that it has three main components, in Europe, North America and Latin America. [...] However, Latin America has followed a quite different development path from Europe and North America. Although it is a scion of European civilization, it also incorporates more elements of indigenous American civilizations compared to those of North America and Europe. It also currently has had a more corporatist and authoritarian culture. Both Europe and North America felt the effects of Reformation and combination of Catholic and Protestant cultures. Historically, Latin America has been only Catholic, although this may be changing. [...] Latin America could be considered, or a sub-set, within Western civilization, or can also be considered a separate civilization, intimately related to the West, but divided as to whether it belongs with it.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ ISBN 978-1451628975.
- ^ Espinosa, Emilio Lamo de (4 December 2017). "Is Latin America part of the West?" (PDF). Elcano Royal Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 April 2019.
- ISBN 9781134374755.
- ^ "Is Eastern Europe part of the Western world?". www.studycountry.com. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
- ^ Espinosa, Emilio Lamo de. "Is Latin America part of the West?". Elcano Royal Institute. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
- ISBN 978-1457681523.
The making of the West depended on cultural, political, and economic interaction among diverse groups. The West remains an evolving concept, not a fixed region with unchanging borders and members.
- ^ a b c Shvili, Jason (26 April 2021). "The Western World". worldatlas.com. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8.
the term "Western" — refer to the culture of classical antiquity that arose in Greece and Rome; survived the collapse of the Roman Empire; spread to western and northern Europe; then during the great periods of exploration and colonization of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries expanded to the Americas, Australia and areas of Asia and Africa; and now exercises global political, economic, cultural, and military power far greater than the size of its territory or population might otherwise suggest.
- ISBN 9780534646028.
people in these early civilizations viewed themselves as subjects of states or empires, not as members of Western civilization. With the rise of Christianity during the Late Roman Empire, however, peoples in Europe began to identify themselves as part of a civilization different from others, such as that of Islam, leading to a concept of a Western civilization different from other civilizations. In the fifteenth century, Renaissance intellectuals began to identify this civilization not only with Christianity but also with the intellectual and political achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Important to the development of the idea of a distinct Western civilization were encounters with other peoples. Between 700 and 1500, encounters with the world of Islam helped define the West. But after 1500, as European ships began to move into other parts of the world, encounters with peoples in Asia, Africa, and the Americas not only had an impact on the civilizations found there but also affected how people in the West defined themselves. At the same time, as they set up colonies, Europeans began to transplant a sense of Western identity to other areas of the world, especially North America and parts of Latin America, that have come to be considered part of Western civilization.
- ISBN 9781134374755.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Western civilization expanded geographically, in whole or in part. [...] a host of major trends... occurred essentially in parallel, suggesting significant cohesion within an expanded Western civilization. The industrial revolution, though launched in Britain, turned out to be a transatlantic process very quickly. ... The same applies to the new movement to limit per capita birth rates – the demographic transition that ran through Western civilization during the 19th century... and the outcomes by 1900, in unprecedentedly low birth rates per family combined with rapidly falling infant death rates, was essentially the same through out this expanded Western world.
- ISBN 978-9004139046.is also the origin for the methods and contents of the philosophical thought and theological investigation in Islam and Judaism.
Side by side with Christianity, the classical Greco-Roman world forms the sound foundation of Western civilization. Greek philosophy
- ISBN 978-0684193038.
First, IR focuses primarily on and legitimizes the actions and decisions of the US and the global North/West. Second, IR privileges certain political projects, such as neoliberal economic policies, state-centrism, and Northern/Western liberal democracy. Third, IR legitimizes the most privileged socio-political players and institutions, in both the Global North/West and the Global South [...] When we say 'North/West,' we mean primarily the US, but also Great Britain, 'Western' European countries, and, depending on context, limited others.
For example, it is now fairly common place in many universities in the global north/west and in some universities in the south/east to include gender-related modules, including studies on gender and language, in their curricula.
The awareness that East and West were not only different regions of the world but also regions filled with different peoples, with different cultures, worshipping different gods and, most crucially, holding different views on how best to live their lives, we owe not to an Asian but to a Western people: the Greeks. It was a Greek historian, Herodotus
The concept of the Western world, as opposed to other parts of the world, was born in ancient Greece, specifically in the years 480-479 BCE, when the ancient Greek city states fought against the powerful Persian Empire to the east.
Building on concepts from the Near East, Greeks originated the idea of the West as a separate region, identifying Europe as the West (where the sun sets) and different from the East (where the sun rises).
But even after 1054 friendly relations between east and west continued. The two parts of Christendom were not yet conscious of a great gulf of separation between them, and people on both sides still hoped that the misunderstandings could be cleared up without too much difficulty. The dispute remained something of which ordinary Christians in east and west were largely unaware. It was the Crusades which made the schism definitive: they introduced a new spirit of hatred and bitterness, and they brought the whole issue down to the popular level.
The Crusades, like the wars of Rome with Persia, were attempts of the West to capture trade routes to the East; the discovery of America was a result of the failure of the Crusades.
While "Western Civilization" is a common theme in the curriculum of secondary and tertiary education, there is a great deal of disagreement about what the terms "West" or "Western" world signify. I have defined it as those "religious traditions, institutions, cultures and nations, including their contemporary shared values, that together emerged as the intellectual descendants and transformers of Latin Christendom." Geographically, this entails Western Europe (including Poland and other central European countries), North America and many other parts of the world that share these traditions and histories, or have adopted them. Much of Central and South America seem to reflect these traditions and values.
The English word "West" was originally an adverb of direction. It meant, in effect, "farther down, farther away". By the Middle Ages, it was already being used by Europeans to describe Europe, and by the late six-teenth century, it had become associated with forward movement, with youth and vigor, and ultimately, as Europe expanded—westward—with "civilization". Ever since the eighteenth century, the word has been applied not only to Europe but also to Europe's settlers overseas, to the wider European World.
Often, in recent years, "the west" means the north Atlantic: Europe and her former colonies in North America. The opposite here is a non-western world in Africa, Asia and Latin America – now dubbed "the global south" – though many people in Latin America will claim a western inheritance, too. This way of talking notices the whole world, but lumps a whole lot of extremely different societies together, while delicately carving around Australians and New Zealanders and white South Africans, so that "western" here can look simply like a euphemism for white.
Thus, Japan could be considered part of the West because it maintains a Western-style democracy, even though it is located in the Far East. At the same time, Cuba still clings to communism, and it is argued by many that the ruling regime of Cuba does not hold so-called Western values, even though it is geographically in the Western Hemisphere.
"The whitening
- "The Immigration Restriction Act and the White Australia policy". National Archives of Australia. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was a landmark law which provided the cornerstone of the unofficial 'White Australia' policy and aimed to maintain Australia as a nation populated mainly by white Europeans. It included a dictation test of 50 words in a European language, which became the chief way unwanted migrants could be excluded. The policy remained in place for many decades.
- "White New Zealand policy introduced | NZHistory, New Zealand history online". nzhistory.govt.nz. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
New Zealand's immigration policy in the early 20th century was strongly influenced by racial ideology. The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act 1920 required intending immigrants to apply for a permanent residence permit before they arrived in New Zealand. Permission was given at the discretion of the minister of customs. The Act enabled officials to prevent Indians and other non-white British subjects entering New Zealand.
In the western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of white supremacy, and helped fuel the European exploration, conquest and colonization of much of the rest of the world.
Western world racism inflated the values of "Europeanness" and "Whiteness" in areas of civilization, human worth, and culture, and deflated the values of "African-ness" and "Blackness".
Intellectually and culturally, the Western world after 1965 was notable for its diversity and innovation.
We are near a global watershed - a time when white people will not be in the majority in the developed world — Just 500 years ago, few had ventured outside their European homeland. [...] clearing the way, they settled in North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand and, to a lesser extent, southern Africa. But now, around the world, whites are falling as a proportion of population.
The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the "cradle" of the West is endless; two more examples are Charles Freeman's The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (1999) and Bruce Thornton's Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization (2000)
The reason why even such a sophisticated historian as Pagden can do it is that the idea that Greece is the cradle of civilisation is so much rooted in western minds and school curricula as to be taken for granted.
In 1979, a friend of de Boer's invited him to join a team of scientists that was going to Greece to assess the suitability of the ... But the idea of learning more about Greece — the cradle of Western civilization, a fresh example of tectonic forces at ...
for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ...
PART I PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II THE CRADLE OF WESTERN THOUGHT:
The capital of Greece, one of the world's most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture,
In short, Greece, despite having been the cradle of Western culture, was then an "other" space separate from the West.
Ancient Greece: Cradle of Western Culture (Series), disc. 6 strips with 3 discs, range: 44–60 fr., 17–18 min
and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture.
Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization.
The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture,
Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (linkThe contrast between Athens and Jerusalem, as the twin fonts of Western civilization, is often thought to sum up a number of structural dichotomies...
Western culture, which influenced the whole world, came from Europe. But its roots are not there. They are in Athens and Jerusalem… The Roman attitude senses its own incompleteness and recognizes the call to borrow from what went before it. Historically, it has led the West to borrow from the great traditions of Jerusalem and Athens: primarily the Jewish and Christian tradition, on the one hand, and the classical Greek tradition on the other.
The fact that modern international law is one of the products of Western European civilization means that it rests, as all that civilization, upon the threefold heritage of the ancient Mediterranean world, the heritage of Rome, Athens and Jerusalem.
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[...] the occasional executions of heretics during this period must be ascribed partly to the arbitrary action of individual rulers, partly to the fanatic outbreaks of the overzealous populace, and in no wise to ecclesiastical law or the ecclesiastical authorities.
Specifically, these are 'Western' or 'White' values that find their foundation in Greco-Roman philosophy and espouse key notions such as individualism and enlightenment.
The global expansion of western Europe between the 1760s and the 1870s differed in several important ways from the expansionism and colonialism of previous centuries. Along with the rise of the Industrial Revolution, which economic historians generally trace to the 1760s, and the continuing spread of industrialization in the empire-building countries came a shift in the strategy of trade with the colonial world. Instead of being primarily buyers of colonial products (and frequently under strain to offer sufficient salable goods to balance the exchange), as in the past, the industrializing nations increasingly became sellers in search of markets for the growing volume of their machine-produced goods.
land: 148.94 million sq km
Hugh McLeod, emeritus professor of Church History at the University of Birmingham, provides a helpful summary of the decline of Christendom in Western Europe in four stages: 1 Toleration of alternative forms of Christianity (in the Reformation and post-Reformation era in the 16th century and onward). 2 Publication of literature that was critical of Christianity (in the Enlightenment era of the 18th century). 3 Separation of church and state (from the 18th century onward). 4 The "gradual loosening of the ties between church and society". [...] At least since the mid-20th century, many European countries have experienced a decline in churched religion. In particular, declining church attendance has been an important aspect of this process, and a characteristic of the development that has been described as the secularization process. [...] The secularization processes in the Western world involve a partial replacement of established Christianity by unchurched spirituality, characterized by á la carte religion and a focus on "me and my experiences".
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (linkThe origin of western civilization is usually dated to 700 or 800 AD. In general, researchers consider that it has three main components, in Europe, North America and Latin America"... "However, Latin America has followed a quite different development path from Europe and North America. Although it is a scion of European civilization, it also incorporates, to varying degrees, elements of indigenous American civilizations, absent from North America and Europe.Both Europe and North America felt the effects of the Reformation and combined Catholic and Protestant culture. Historically, Latin America has been only Catholic, although this may be changing. Latin American civilization incorporates indigenous cultures, which did not exist in Europe, which were effectively annihilated in North America, and whose importance oscillates between two extremes: Mexico, Central America, Peru and Bolivia, on the one hand, and Argentina and Chile, on the other. The political evolution and the economic development of Latin America have clearly separated from the predominant models in the North Atlantic countries. Subjectively, Latin Americans themselves are divided when it comes to identifying themselves. Some say: "Yes, we are part of the West." Others say: "No, we have our own unique culture"; and a vast bibliographical material produced by Latin Americans and North Americans exposes in detail their cultural differences. Latin America could be considered, or a sub-civilization within Western civilization, or a separate civilization, intimately related to the West and divided as to its belonging to it.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (linkAlthough geographically part of Southeast Asia, the country is culturally strongly Euro-American
'Feminism' is often criticized for being inherently white and Western – a critique that largely corresponds with mainstream feminism's claims that women in the West are the liberated, autonomous subjects that women from 'other cultures' are yet to become.
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- Vintges, Karen (2017). A New Dawn for the Second Sex: Women's Freedom Practices in World Perspective. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 59–94. JSTOR j.ctt1s475v4.6.
Further reading
- Allardyce, Gilbert (June 1982). "The Rise and Fall of the Western Civilization Course". JSTOR 1864161.
- Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and West. INU societal research. Vol. 1. Global communication without universal civilization. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
- Bavaj, Riccardo: "The West": A Conceptual Exploration , Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 28 November 2011.
- Conze, Vanessa, Abendland, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2017, retrieved: 8 March 2021 (pdf).
- Daly, Jonathan. "The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization Archived 30 June 2017 at the ISBN 9781441161314.
- Daly, Jonathan. "Historians Debate the Rise of the West" (London and New York: Routledge, 2015). ISBN 978-1-13-877481-0.
- The Western Tradition homepage at Annenberg/CPB Archived 20 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine – where you can watch each episode on demand for free (Pop-ups required). Videos are also available as a YouTube playlist.
- J. F. C. Fuller. A Military History of the Western World. Three Volumes. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988.
- V. 1. From the earliest times to the ISBN 0-306-80304-6.
- V. 2. From ISBN 0-306-80305-4.
- V. 3. From the ISBN 0-306-80306-2.
- V. 1. From the earliest times to the
- Patterson, Thomas C. (1997). Inventing Western Civilization. New York: Monthly Review Press. OCLC 606950598.
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