White supremacy
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White supremacy is the belief that
As a political ideology, it imposes and maintains cultural, social, political, historical or institutional domination by white people and non-white supporters. In the past, this ideology had been put into effect through socioeconomic and legal structures such as the Atlantic slave trade, colonial labor and social practices, the Scramble for Africa, Jim Crow laws in the United States, the activities of the Native Land Court in New Zealand,[4] the White Australia policies from the 1890s to the mid-1970s, and apartheid in South Africa.[5][6] This ideology is also today present among neo-Confederates.
White supremacy underlies a spectrum of contemporary movements including
Different forms of white supremacy have different conceptions of who is considered white (though the exemplar is generally light-skinned, blond-haired, and blue-eyed—traits most common in northern Europe, which are pseudoscientifically viewed as being part of an
In academic usage, particularly in
History
White supremacy has ideological foundations that date back to 17th-century
United States
Early history
White supremacy was dominant in the United States both before and after the
The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only.[37] In some parts of the United States, many people who were considered non-white were disenfranchised, barred from government office, and prevented from holding most government jobs well into the second half of the 20th century. Professor Leland T. Saito of the University of Southern California writes: "Throughout the history of the United States, race has been used by whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion."[38]
20th century
The denial of social and political freedom to minorities continued into the mid-20th century, resulting in the
Sociologist Stephen Klineberg has stated that U.S. immigration laws prior to 1965 clearly "declared that
After the mid-1960s, white supremacy remained an important ideology to the
21st century
The presidential campaign of Donald Trump led to a surge of interest in white supremacy and white nationalism in the United States, bringing increased media attention and new members to their movement; his campaign enjoyed their widespread support.[11][12][13][14]
Some academics argue that outcomes from the
As of 2018, there were over 600 white supremacy organizations recorded in the U.S.
On September 20, 2019, the acting
In a 2020 article in The New York Times titled "How White Women Use Themselves as Instruments of Terror", columnist Charles M. Blow wrote:[63]
We often like to make white supremacy a testosterone-fueled masculine expression, but it is just as likely to wear heels as a hood. Indeed, untold numbers of lynchings were executed because white women had claimed that a black man raped, assaulted, talked to or glanced at them. The Tulsa race massacre, the destruction of Black Wall Street, was spurred by an incident between a white female elevator operator and a black man. As the Oklahoma Historical Society points out, the most common explanation is that he stepped on her toe. As many as 300 people were killed because of it. The torture and murder of 14-year-old Emmett Till in 1955, a lynching actually, occurred because a white woman said that he "grabbed her and was menacing and sexually crude toward her". This practice, this exercise in racial extremism has been dragged into the modern era through the weaponizing of 9-1-1, often by white women, to invoke the power and force of the police who they are fully aware are hostile to black men. This was again evident when a white woman in New York's Central Park told a black man, a bird-watcher, that she was going to call the police and tell them that he was threatening her life.
Patterns of influence
Political violence
The
School curriculum
White supremacy has also played a part in U.S. school curriculum. Over the course of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, material across the spectrum of academic disciplines has been taught with a heavy emphasis on White culture, contributions, and experiences, and a lack of representation of non-White groups' perspectives and accomplishments.[67][68][69][70] In the 19th century, Geography lessons contained teachings on a fixed racial hierarchy, which white people topped.[71] Mills (1994) writes that history as it is taught is really the history of White people, and it is taught in a way that favors White Americans and White people in general. He states that the language used to tell history minimizes the violent acts committed by White people over the centuries, citing the use of the words, for example, "discovery," "colonization," and "New World" when describing what was ultimately a European conquest of the Western Hemisphere and its indigenous peoples.[68] Swartz (1992) seconds this reading of modern history narratives when it comes to the experiences, resistances, and accomplishments of Black Americans throughout the Middle Passage, slavery, Reconstruction, Jim Crow, and the Civil rights movement. In an analysis of American history textbooks, she highlights word choices that repetitively "normalize" slavery and the inhumane treatment of Black people. She also notes the frequent showcasing of White abolitionists and actual exclusion of Black abolitionists and the fact that Black Americans had been mobilizing for abolition for centuries before the major White American push for abolition in the 19th century. She ultimately asserts the presence of a masternarrative that centers Europe and its associated peoples (White people) in school curriculum, particularly as it pertains to history.[72] She writes that this masternarrative condenses history into only history that is relevant to, and to some extent beneficial for, White Americans.[72]
Elson (1964) provides detailed information about the historic dissemination of simplistic and negative ideas about non-White races.[68][73][74] Native Americans, who were subjected to attempts of cultural genocide by the U.S. government through the use of American Indian boarding schools,[73][75] were characterized as homogenously "cruel," a violent menace toward White Americans, and lacking civilization or societal complexity (p. 74).[71] For example, in the 19th century, Black Americans were consistently portrayed as lazy, immature, and intellectually and morally inferior to white Americans, and in many ways not deserving of equal participation in U.S. society.[69][73][71] For example, a math problem in a 19th-century textbook read, "If 5 white men can do as much work as 7 negroes..." implying that white men are more industrious and competent than black men (p. 99).[76] In addition, little to none was taught about Black Americans' contributions, or their histories before being brought to U.S. soil as slaves.[73][74] According to Wayne (1972), this approach was taken especially much after the Civil War to maintain Whites' hegemony over emancipated Black Americans.[73] Other racial groups have received oppressive treatment, including Mexican Americans, who were temporarily prevented from learning the same curriculum as White Americans because they were supposedly intellectually inferior, and Asian Americans, some of whom were prevented from learning much about their ancestral lands because they were deemed a threat to "American" culture, i.e. White culture, at the turn of the 20th century.[73]
Role of the internet
With the emergence of Twitter in 2006, and platforms such as
There certainly were hate groups before the Internet and social media. [But with social media] it just becomes easier to organize, to spread the word, for people to know where to go. It could be to raise money, or it could be to engage in attacks on social media. Some of the activity is virtual. Some of it is in a physical place. Social media has lowered the collective-action problems that individuals who might want to be in a hate group would face. You can see that there are people out there like you. That's the dark side of social media.[80]
A series on YouTube hosted by the grandson of
British Commonwealth
There has been debate whether Winston Churchill, who was voted "the greatest ever Briton" in 2002, was "a racist and white supremacist".[84] In the context of rejecting the Arab wish to stop Jewish immigration to Palestine, he said:
I do not admit that the dog in the manger has the final right to the manger, though he may have lain there for a very long time. I do not admit that right. I do not admit for instance that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to those people by the fact that a stronger race, a higher-grade race or at any rate a more worldly-wise race ... has come in and taken their place."[85]
British historian Richard Toye, author of Churchill's Empire, concluded that "Churchill did think that white people were superior."[84]
South Africa
A number of Southern African nations experienced severe racial tension and conflict during global
Rhodesia
In Rhodesia a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom in 1965 during an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to avoid majority rule.[90] Following the Rhodesian Bush War which was fought by African nationalists, Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith acceded to biracial political representation in 1978 and the state achieved recognition from the United Kingdom as Zimbabwe in 1980.[91]
Germany
As the
German praise for America's institutional racism, previously found in Hitler's Mein Kampf, was continuous throughout the early 1930s. Nazi lawyers were advocates of the use of American models.[98] Race-based U.S. citizenship and anti-miscegenation laws directly inspired the Nazis' two principal Nuremberg racial laws—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.[98] To preserve the Aryan or Nordic race, the Nazis introduced the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, which forbade sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, and later between Germans and Romani and Slavs. The Nazis used the Mendelian inheritance theory to argue that social traits were innate, claiming that there was a racial nature associated with certain general traits such as inventiveness or criminal behavior.[99]
According to the 2012 annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service, the
Australia and New Zealand
Fifty-one people died from two consecutive terrorist attacks at the Al Noor Mosque and the Linwood Islamic Centre by an Australian white supremacist carried out on March 15, 2019. The terrorist attacks have been described by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern as "One of New Zealand's darkest days". On August 27, 2020, the shooter was sentenced to life without parole.[101][102][103]
In 2016, there was a rise in debate over the appropriateness of the naming of Massey University in Palmerston North after William Massey, who many historians and critics have described as a white supremacist.[104] Lecturer Steve Elers was a leading proponent of the idea that Massey was an avowed white supremacist, given Massey "made several anti-Chinese racist statements in the public domain" and intensified the New Zealand head tax.[105][106] In 1921, Massey wrote in the Evening Post: "New Zealanders are probably the purest Anglo-Saxon population in the British Empire. Nature intended New Zealand to be a white man's country, and it must be kept as such. The strain of Polynesian will be no detriment". This is one of many quotes attributed to him regarded as being openly racist.[107]
Ideologies and movements
Supporters of Nordicism consider the "Nordic peoples" to be a superior race.[108] By the early 19th century, white supremacy was attached to emerging theories of racial hierarchy. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer attributed cultural primacy to the white race:
The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmins, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate.[109]
The
In the United States, the groups most associated with the white supremacist movement are the
Christian Identity is another movement closely tied to white supremacy. Some white supremacists identify themselves as Odinists, although many Odinists reject white supremacy. Some white supremacist groups, such as the South African Boeremag, conflate elements of Christianity and Odinism. Creativity (formerly known as "The World Church of the Creator") is atheistic and it denounces Christianity and other theistic religions.[118][119] Aside from this, its ideology is similar to that of many Christian Identity groups because it believes in the antisemitic conspiracy theory that there is a "Jewish conspiracy" in control of governments, the banking industry and the media. Matthew F. Hale, founder of the World Church of the Creator, has published articles stating that all races other than white are "mud races", which is what the group's religion teaches.[citation needed]
The white supremacist ideology has become associated with a racist faction of the
White supremacist recruitment activities are primarily conducted at a grassroots level as well as on the Internet. Widespread access to the Internet has led to a dramatic increase in white supremacist websites.[123] The Internet provides a venue to openly express white supremacist ideas at little social cost, because people who post the information are able to remain anonymous.
White nationalism
White separatism
White separatism is a political and social movement that seeks the separation of white people from people of other races and ethnicities. This may include the establishment of a white ethnostate by removing non-whites from existing communities or by forming new communities elsewhere.[124]
Most modern researchers do not view white separatism as distinct from white supremacist beliefs. The Anti-Defamation League defines white separatism as "a form of white supremacy";[125] the Southern Poverty Law Center defines both white nationalism and white separatism as "ideologies based on white supremacy."[126] Facebook has banned content that is openly white nationalist or white separatist because "white nationalism and white separatism cannot be meaningfully separated from white supremacy and organized hate groups".[127][128]
Use of the term to self-identify has been criticized as a dishonest rhetorical ploy. The Anti-Defamation League argues that white supremacists use the phrase because they believe it has fewer negative connotations than the term white supremacist.[129]
Dobratz & Shanks-Meile reported that adherents usually reject marriage "outside the white race". They argued for the existence of "a distinction between the white supremacist's desire to dominate (as in apartheid, slavery, or segregation) and complete separation by race".[130] They argued that this is a matter of pragmatism, that while many white supremacists are also white separatists, contemporary white separatists reject the view that returning to a system of segregation is possible or desirable in the United States.[131]
Notable white separatists
- Andrew Anglin
- Virginia Abernethy
- Fraser Anning
- Gordon Lee Baum
- Louis Beam
- Don Black
- Richard Girnt Butler
- Thomas W. Chittum
- Harold Covington
- David Duke
- Mike Enoch
- Samuel T. Francis
- Nick Griffin
- Michael H. Hart
- Arthur Kemp
- Ben Klassen
- David Lane
- William Massey
- Robert Jay Mathews
- Tom Metzger
- Merlin Miller
- Revilo P. Oliver
- William Luther Pierce
- Richard B. Spencer
- Kevin Alfred Strom
- Jared Taylor
- Eugène Terre'Blanche
- Andries Treurnicht
- John Tyndall
- Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd
- Varg Vikernes
Aligned organizations and philosophies
- Aryan Brotherhood
- Christian Identity
- Council of Conservative Citizens
- Ethnopluralism
- Eurocentrism
- Ku Klux Klan
- National-anarchism
- Neo-Confederate
- New Orleans Protocol
- Northwest Territorial Imperative
- White pride
Academic use of the term
The term white supremacy is used in some academic studies of racial power to denote a system of structural or societal racism which privileges white people over others, regardless of the presence or the absence of racial hatred. According to this definition, white racial advantages occur at both a collective and an individual level (ceteris paribus, i. e., when individuals are compared that do not relevantly differ except in ethnicity). Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows:
By "white supremacy" I do not mean to allude only to the self-conscious racism of white supremacist hate groups. I refer instead to a political, economic and cultural system in which whites overwhelmingly control power and material resources, conscious and unconscious ideas of white superiority and entitlement are widespread, and relations of white dominance and non-white subordination are daily reenacted across a broad array of institutions and social settings.[24][25]
This and similar definitions have been adopted or proposed by Charles W. Mills,[26] bell hooks,[27] David Gillborn,[28] Jessie Daniels,[132] and Neely Fuller Jr,[133] and they are widely used in critical race theory and intersectional feminism. Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, also use the term in this way. The term expresses historic continuities between a pre–civil rights movement era of open white supremacy and the current racial power structure of the United States. It also expresses the visceral impact of structural racism through "provocative and brutal" language that characterizes racism as "nefarious, global, systemic, and constant".[134] Academic users of the term sometimes prefer it to racism because it allows for a distinction to be drawn between racist feelings and white racial advantage or privilege.[135][136][14] John McWhorter, a specialist in language and race relations, explains the gradual replacement of "racism" by "white supremacy" by the fact that "potent terms need refreshment, especially when heavily used", drawing a parallel with the replacement of "chauvinist" by "sexist"[137].
Other intellectuals have criticized the term's recent rise in popularity among leftist activists as counterproductive. John McWhorter has described the use of "white supremacy" as straying from its commonly accepted meaning to encompass less extreme issues, thereby cheapening the term and potentially derailing productive discussion.
See also
- Afrophobia
- Anti-Mexican sentiment
- Anti-Romani sentiment
- Antisemitism
- Basking in reflected glory
- Black supremacy
- Boreal (politics and culture)
- Christian Identity
- Creativity (religion)
- Frances Cress Welsing
- Heroes of the Fiery Cross (book)
- Hispanophobia
- Kinism
- Me and White Supremacy (book)
- Race and intelligence
- Racism against Black Americans
- "The White Man's Burden" (poem)
- Western Supremacy (book)
- White nationalist organizations
- White power skinheads
- White power symbol (disambiguation)
- White pride
- White nationalism
Notes
- ^ This quote is by Klineberg in the NPR story, not from the text of any US law.
References
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Instead, the Western concept of race must be understood as a classification system that emerged from, and in support of, European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination.
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Although white racist activists must adopt a political identity of whiteness, the flimsy definition of whiteness in modern culture poses special challenges for them. In both mainstream and white supremacist discourse, to be white is to be distinct from those marked as nonwhite, yet the placement of the distinguishing line has varied significantly in different times and places.
- ISBN 978-0-415-93586-9.
Although white racist activists must adopt a political identity of whiteness, the flimsy definition of whiteness in modern culture poses special challenges for them. In both mainstream and white supremacist discourse, to be white is distinct from those marked as non-white, yet the distinguishing line placement has varied significantly in different times and places.
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- ^ The controversial "Cornerstone Speech", Alexander H. Stephens (Vice President of the Confederate States), March 21, 1861, Savannah, Georgia Archived November 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine: "Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery—subordination to the superior race—is his natural and normal condition."
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The questions deal with most of the major racial issues that became focal in the middle of the twentieth century: integration of public accommodations, school integration, residential integration, and job discrimination [and] racial intermarriage and willingness to vote for a black presidential candidate. ... The trends that occur for most of the principle items are quite similar and can be illustrated ...using attitudes toward school integration as an example. The figure shows that there has been a massive and continuous movement of the American public from overwhelming acceptance of the principle of segregated schooling in the early 1940s toward acceptance of the principle of integrated schooling. ... by 1985, more than nine out of ten chose the pro-integration response.
- ISBN 978-1-4129-4107-5.have rejected the idea of inherent black inferiority.
In 1942 only 42 percent of a national sample of whites reported that they believed blacks to be equal to whites in innate intelligence; since the late 1950s, however, around 80 percent of white Americans
- ISBN 978-0-415-94964-4. Archived from the original on March 7, 2024. Retrieved October 21, 2020.)
white racial attitudes shifted dramatically in the postwar period. ... So, monolithic white supremacy is over, yet in a more concealed way, white power and privilege live on.
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:|journal=
ignored (help - Christian Rightflourished in the 1970s and 1980s, the Far Right also rebounded... The Far Right—encompassing Ku Klux Klan, neonazi, and related organizations—attracted a much smaller following than the New Right, but its influence reverberated in its encouragement of widespread attacks against members of oppressed groups and in broad-based scapegoating campaigns
- ISBN 978-0-674-28607-8.
The white power movement that emerged from the Vietnam era shared some common attributes with earlier racist movements in the United States, but it was no mere echo. Unlike previous iterations of the Ku Klux Klan and white supremacist vigilantism, the white power movement did not claim to serve the state. Instead, white power made the state its target, declaring war against the federal government in 1983.
- ISSN 0027-8378. Archived from the originalon April 7, 2019. Retrieved March 12, 2024.
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- ^ Winant, Howard (1997). "Behind Blue Eyes: Whiteness and Contemporary US Racial Politics". New Left Review (225): 73.
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Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute.
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Further reading
- Almaguer, Tomás. (2008) Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1994.
- Brooks, Michael E. and ISBN 978-0-8142-5800-2
- Baird, Robert P. (April 20, 2021). "The invention of whiteness: the long history of a dangerous idea". The Guardian.
- ISBN 1842772198
- Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie (2000) "White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4
- ISBN 978-1-58367-663-9.
- ISBN 978-1-58367-872-5.
- MacCann, Donnarae (2000) White Supremacy in Children's Literature: Characterizations of African Americans, 1830–1900. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415928908
- ISBN 978-0-7453-2318-3
External links
- Heart of Whiteness—A documentary film about what it means to be white in South Africa
- "Voices on Antisemitism"—Interview with Frank Meeink from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
- "Russell Moore: White supremacy angers Jesus, but does it anger his church?"—The president of the Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention
- "Exterminate All the Brutes, Reviewed: A Vast, Agonizing History of White Supremacy" (HBO Series), by Richard Brody, April 9, 2021, The New Yorker