Wild boar
Wild boar Temporal range: Early Pleistocene–Holocene
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Male Central European boar (S. s. scrofa) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Artiodactyla |
Family: | Suidae |
Genus: | Sus |
Species: | S. scrofa
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Binomial name | |
Sus scrofa | |
Reconstructed native range of wild boar (green) and introduced populations (blue) except in the Caribbean, New Zealand, sub-Saharan Africa, and elsewhere in Bermuda, Northern Canada and Alaska.[1] | |
Synonyms | |
List
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The wild boar (Sus scrofa), also known as the wild swine,
As of 2005[update], up to 16
Terminology
As true wild boars became extinct in Great Britain before the development of Modern English, the same terms are often used for both true wild boar and pigs, especially large or semi-wild ones. The English boar stems from the Old English bār, which is thought to be derived from the West Germanic bair, of unknown origin.[13] Boar is sometimes used specifically to refer to males, and may also be used to refer to male domesticated pigs, especially breeding males that have not been castrated.[14][15]
Sow, the traditional name for a female, again comes from Old English and Germanic; it stems from
The animals' specific name scrofa is Latin for 'sow'.[17]
Hunting
In hunting terminology, boars are given different designations according to their age:[18]
Designation | Age | Image |
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Squeaker | 0–10 months | |
Juvenile | 10–12 months | |
Pig of the sounder | Two years | |
Boar of the 4th/5th/6th year | 3–5 years | |
Old boar | Six years | |
Grand old boar | Over seven years |
Taxonomy and evolution
Subspecies
As of 2005[update], 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings:[2]
- Western: Includes S. s. scrofa, S. s. meridionalis, S. s. algira, S. s. attila, S. s. lybicus and S. s. nigripes. These subspecies are typically high-skulled (though lybicus and some scrofa are low-skulled), with thick underwool and (excepting scrofa and attila) poorly developed manes.[21]
- Indian: Includes S. s. davidi and S. s. cristatus. These subspecies have sparse or absent underwool, with long manes and prominent bands on the snout and mouth. While S. s. cristatus is high-skulled, S. s. davidi is low-skulled.[21]
- Eastern: Includes S. s. sibiricus, S. s. ussuricus, S. s. leucomystax, S. s. riukiuanus, S. s. taivanus and S. s. moupinensis. These subspecies are characterised by a whitish streak extending from the corners of the mouth to the lower jaw. With the exception of S. s. ussuricus, most are high-skulled. The underwool is thick, except in S. s. moupinensis, and the mane is largely absent.[21]
- Indonesian: Represented solely by S. s. vittatus, it is characterised by its sparse body hair, lack of underwool, fairly long mane, a broad reddish band extending from the muzzle to the sides of the neck.[21] It is the most basal of the four groups, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition and unspecialised cranial structure.[22]
Subspecies | Image | Trinomial authority | Description | Range | Synonyms |
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Nominate subspecies
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Linnaeus, 1758 | A medium-sized, dark to rusty brown-haired subspecies with long and relatively narrow lacrimal bones[4] | Much of continental Europe and into Eurasia |
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North African boar S. s. algira | Loche, 1867 | Sometimes considered a junior synonym of S. s. scrofa, but smaller and with proportionally longer tusks[37]
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Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco | barbarus (Sclater, 1860) sahariensis (Heim de Balzac, 1937) | |
Carpathian boar S. s. attila | Thomas, 1912 | A large-sized subspecies with long lacrimal bones and dark hair, though lighter-coloured than S. s. scrofa[4] | Asia Minor and northern Iran
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falzfeini (Matschie, 1918) | |
Indian boar S. s. cristatus | Wagner, 1839 | A long-maned subspecies with a coat that is | affinis (Gray, 1847), aipomus (Gray, 1868), aipomus (Hodgson, 1842), bengalensis (Blyth, 1860), indicus (Gray, 1843), isonotus (Gray, 1868), isonotus (Hodgson, 1842), jubatus (Miller, 1906), typicus (Lydekker, 1900), zeylonensis (Blyth, 1851) | ||
Central Asian boar S. s. davidi | Groves, 1981 | A small, long-maned and light brown subspecies[38] | Pakistan and northwestern India to southeastern Iran | ||
Japanese boar S. s. leucomystax | Temminck, 1842 | A small, almost maneless, yellowish-brown subspecies[38] | All of Japan, save for Hokkaido and the Ryukyu Islands | japonica (Nehring, 1885) nipponicus (Heude, 1899) | |
Anatolian boar S. s. libycus | Gray, 1868 | A small, pale and almost maneless subspecies[38] | former Yugoslavia
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lybicus (Groves, 1981) mediterraneus (Ulmansky, 1911) | |
Maremman boar S. s. majori | De Beaux and Festa, 1927 | Smaller than S. s. scrofa, with a higher and wider skull; since the 1950s, it has crossed extensively with S. s. scrofa, largely due to the two being kept together in meat farms and artificial introductions by hunters of S. s. scrofa specimens into S. s. majori habitats.[40] Its separation from S. s. scrofa is doubtful.[41] | Maremma (central Italy) | ||
Mediterranean boar S. s. meridionalis | Forsyth Major, 1882 | The subspecies is significantly smaller than S. s. scrofa. The fur is dull olive-fawn, the underwool is sparse and individuals mostly lack a mane.[42] | Andalusia, Corsica and Sardinia | baeticus (Thomas, 1912) sardous (Ströbel, 1882) | |
Northern Chinese boar S. s. moupinensis | Milne-Edwards, 1871 | There are significant variations within this subspecies and it is possible there are actually several subspecies involved.[38] | Coastal China south to Vietnam and west to Sichuan | acrocranius (Heude, 1892), chirodontus (Heude, 1888), chirodonticus (Heude, 1899), collinus (Heude, 1892), curtidens (Heude, 1892), dicrurus (Heude, 1888), flavescens (Heude, 1899), frontosus (Heude, 1892), laticeps (Heude, 1892), leucorhinus (Heude, 1888), melas (Heude, 1892), microdontus (Heude, 1892), oxyodontus (Heude, 1888), paludosus (Heude, 1892), palustris (Heude, 1888), planiceps (Heude, 1892), scrofoides (Heude, 1892), spatharius (Heude, 1892), taininensis (Heude, 1888) | |
Middle Asian boar S. s. nigripes | Blanford, 1875 | A light coloured subspecies with black legs which, though varied in size, is generally quite large, the lacrimal bones and facial region of the skull are shorter than those of S. s. scrofa and S. s. attila.[4] | and southern Iran | ||
Ryukyu boar S. s. riukiuanus | Kuroda, 1924 | A small subspecies[38] | The Ryukyu Islands | ||
Trans-Baikal boar S. s. sibiricus | Staffe, 1922 | The smallest subspecies of the former Soviet region, it has dark brown, almost black hair and a light grey patch extending from the cheeks to the ears. The skull is squarish and the lacrimal bones short.[4]
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The Transbaikalia , northern and northeastern Mongolia
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raddeanus (Adlerberg, 1930) | |
Formosan boar S. s. taivanus | Swinhoe, 1863 | A small blackish subspecies[38] | Taiwan | ||
Ussuri boar S. s. ussuricus | Heude, 1888 | The largest subspecies, it has usually dark hair and a white band extending from the corners of the mouth to the ears. The lacrimal bones are shortened, but longer than those of S. s. sibiricus.[4] | Eastern Amur Bay
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canescens (Heude, 1888), continentalis (Nehring, 1889), coreanus (Heude, 1897), gigas (Heude, 1892), mandchuricus (Heude, 1897), songaricus (Heude, 1897) | |
Banded pig S. s. vittatus | Boie, 1828 | A small, short-faced and sparsely furred subspecies with a white band on the muzzle; it might be a separate species and shows some similarities with some other suid species in Southeast Asia.[38] | From Peninsular Malaysia, and in Indonesia from Sumatra and Java east to Komodo | andersoni (Thomas and Wroughton, 1909), jubatulus (Miller, 1906), milleri (Jentink, 1905), pallidiloris (Mees, 1957), peninsularis (Miller, 1906), rhionis (Miller, 1906), typicus (Heude, 1899) |
Domestication
With the exception of domestic pigs in
DNA evidence from sub-fossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe had been brought from the Near East. This stimulated the domestication of local European wild boars, resulting in a third domestication event with the Near Eastern genes dying out in European pig stock. Modern domesticated pigs have involved complex exchanges, with European domesticated lines being exported in turn to the ancient Near East.[49][50] Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries.[47] Domestic pigs tend to have much more developed hindquarters than their wild boar ancestors, to the point where 70% of their body weight is concentrated in the posterior, which is the opposite of wild boar, where most of the muscles are concentrated on the head and shoulders.[51]
Synonymous species
The Heude's pig (Sus bucculentus), also known as the Indochinese warty pig or Vietnam warty pig, was an alleged pig species found in
Description
The wild boar is a bulky, massively built suid with short and relatively thin legs. The trunk is short and robust, while the hindquarters are comparatively underdeveloped. The region behind the shoulder blades rises into a hump and the neck is short and thick to the point of being nearly immobile. The animal's head is very large, taking up to one-third of the body's entire length.
Sexual dimorphism is very pronounced in the species, with males being typically 5–10% larger and 20–30% heavier than females. Males also sport a mane running down the back, which is particularly apparent during autumn and winter.[57] The canine teeth are also much more prominent in males and grow throughout life. The upper canines are relatively short and grow sideways early in life, though they gradually curve upwards. The lower canines are much sharper and longer, with the exposed parts measuring 10–12 cm (3.9–4.7 in) in length. In the breeding period, males develop a coating of subcutaneous tissue, which may be 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) thick, extending from the shoulder blades to the rump, thus protecting vital organs during fights. Males sport a roughly egg-sized sack near the opening of the penis, which collects urine and emits a sharp odour. The function of this sack is not fully understood.[4]
Adult size and weight is largely determined by environmental factors; boars living in arid areas with little productivity tend to attain smaller sizes than their counterparts inhabiting areas with abundant food and water. In most of Europe, males average 75–100 kg (165–220 lb) in weight, 75–80 cm (30–31 in) in shoulder height and 150 cm (59 in) in body length, whereas females average 60–80 kg (130–180 lb) in weight, 70 cm (28 in) in shoulder height and 140 cm (55 in) in body length. In Europe's Mediterranean regions, males may reach average weights as low as 50 kg (110 lb) and females 45 kg (99 lb), with shoulder heights of 63–65 cm (25–26 in). In the more productive areas of Eastern Europe, males average 110–130 kg (240–290 lb) in weight, 95 cm (37 in) in shoulder height and 160 cm (63 in) in body length, while females weigh 95 kg (209 lb), reach 85–90 cm (33–35 in) in shoulder height, and reach 145 cm (57 in) in body length. In Western and Central Europe, the largest males weigh 200 kg (440 lb) and females 120 kg (260 lb). In Northeastern Asia, large males can reach brown bear-like sizes, weighing 270 kg (600 lb) and measuring 110–118 cm (43–46 in) in shoulder height. Some adult males in Ussuriland and Manchuria have been recorded to weigh 300–350 kg (660–770 lb) and measure 125 cm (49 in) in shoulder height. Adults of this size are generally immune from wolf predation.[58] Such giants are rare in modern times, due to past overhunting preventing animals from attaining their full growth.[4]
The winter coat consists of long, coarse bristles underlaid with short brown downy fur. The length of these bristles varies along the body, with the shortest being around the face and limbs and the longest running along the back. These back bristles form the aforementioned mane prominent in males and stand erect when the animal is agitated. Colour is highly variable; specimens around Lake Balkhash are very lightly coloured, and can even be white, while some boars from Belarus and Ussuriland can be black. Some subspecies sport a light-coloured patch running backward from the corners of the mouth. Coat colour also varies with age, with piglets having light brown or rusty-brown fur with pale bands extending from the flanks and back.[4]
The wild boar produces a number of different sounds which are divided into three categories:
- Contact calls: Grunting noises which differ in intensity according to the situation.[59] Adult males are usually silent, while females frequently grunt and piglets whine.[4] When feeding, boars express their contentment through purring. Studies have shown that piglets imitate the sounds of their mother, thus different litters may have unique vocalisations.[59]
- Alarm calls: Warning cries emitted in response to threats.[59] When frightened, boars make loud huffing ukh! ukh! sounds or emit screeches transcribed as gu-gu-gu.[4]
- Combat calls: High-pitched, piercing cries.[59]
Its sense of
Pigs are one of four known mammalian taxa which possess mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent mutations.[61]
Social behaviour and life cycle
Boars are typically social animals, living in female-dominated sounders consisting of barren sows and mothers with young led by an old matriarch. Male boars leave their sounder at the age of 8–15 months, while females either remain with their mothers or establish new territories nearby. Subadult males may live in loosely knit groups, while adult and elderly males tend to be solitary outside the breeding season.[10][a]
The breeding period in most areas lasts from November to January, though most mating only lasts a month and a half. Prior to mating, the males develop their subcutaneous armour in preparation for confronting rivals. The
Newborn piglets weigh around 600–1,000 grams, lacking underfur and bearing a single milk incisor and canine on each half of the jaw.
Behaviour and ecology
Habitat and sheltering
The wild boar inhabits a diverse array of
The main habitats favored by boars in
On the islands of Komodo and Rinca, the boar mostly inhabits savanna or open monsoon forests, avoiding heavily forested areas unless pursued by humans.[12] Wild boar are known to be competent swimmers, capable of covering long distances. In 2013, one boar was reported to have completed the 11-kilometre (7 mi) swim from France to Alderney in the Channel Islands. Due to concerns about disease, it was shot and incinerated.[69]
Wild boar rest in shelters, which contain insulating material like spruce branches and dry hay. These resting places are occupied by whole families (though males lie separately) and are often located in the vicinity of streams, in swamp forests and in tall grass or shrub thickets. Boars never defecate in their shelters and will cover themselves with soil and pine needles when irritated by insects.[11]
Diet
The wild boar is a highly versatile omnivore, whose diversity in choice of food is comparable to that of humans.[56] Their foods can be divided into four categories:
- Rhizomes, roots, tubers and bulbs, all of which are dug up throughout the year in the animal's whole range.[4]
A 50 kg (110 lb) boar needs around 4,000–4,500
Boars may occasionally prey on small
Predators
Piglets are vulnerable to attack from medium-sized felids like Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), jungle cats (Felis chaus), and snow leopards (Panthera uncia), as well as other carnivorans like brown bears (Ursus arctos) and yellow-throated martens (Martes flavigula).[4]
The wolf (Canis lupus) is the main predator of wild boar throughout most of its range. A single wolf can kill around 50 to 80 boars of differing ages in one year.[4] In Italy[75] and Belarus' Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park, boars are the wolf's primary prey, despite an abundance of alternative, less powerful ungulates.[75] Wolves are particularly threatening during the winter, when deep snow impedes the boars' movements. In the Baltic regions, heavy snowfall can allow wolves to eliminate boars from an area almost completely. Wolves primarily target piglets and subadults and only rarely attack adult sows. Adult males are usually avoided entirely.[4] Dholes (Cuon alpinus) may also prey on boars, to the point of keeping their numbers down in northwestern Bhutan, despite there being many more cattle in the area.[76]
Leopards (Panthera pardus) are predators of wild boar in the Caucasus (particularly Transcaucasia), the Russian Far East, India, China[77] and Iran. In most areas, boars constitute only a small part of the leopard's diet. However, in Iran's Sarigol National Park, boars are the second most frequently targeted prey species after mouflon (Ovis gmelini), though adult individuals are generally avoided, as they are above the leopard's preferred weight range of 10–40 kg (22–88 lb).[78] This dependence on wild boar is largely due in part to the local leopard subspecies' large size.[79]
Boars of all ages were once the primary prey of the tiger (Panthera tigris) in Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Middle Asia and the Far East up until the late 19th century. In modern times, tiger numbers are too low to have a limiting effect on boar populations. A single tiger can systematically destroy an entire sounder by preying on its members one by one, before moving on to another sounder. Tigers have been noted to chase boars for longer distances than with other prey. In two rare cases, boars were reported to gore a small tiger and a tigress to death in self-defense.[80] A "large male tiger" died of wounds inflicted by an old wild boar it had killed in "a battle royal" between the two animals.[81]: 500
In the
On the islands of Komodo, Rinca and Flores, the boar's main predator is the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).[12]
Distribution and habitat
Reconstructed range
The species originally occurred in
Present range
In recent centuries, the range of wild boar has changed dramatically, largely due to hunting by humans and more recently because of captive wild boar escaping into the wild. Prior to the 20th century, boar populations had declined in numerous areas, with British populations probably becoming extinct during the 13th century.[85] In the warm period after the ice age, wild boar lived in the southern parts of Sweden and Norway and north of Lake Ladoga in Karelia.[86] It was previously thought that the species did not live in Finland during prehistory because no prehistoric wild boar bones had been found within the borders of the country.[87][88] It was not until 2013, when a wild boar bone was found in Askola, that the species was found to have lived in Finland more than 8,000 years ago. It is believed, however, that man prevented its establishment by hunting.[89][90] In Denmark, the last boar was shot at the beginning of the 19th century, and by 1900 they were absent in Tunisia and Sudan and large areas of Germany, Austria and Italy. In Russia, they were extirpated in wide areas by the 1930s.[4] The last boar in Egypt reportedly died on 20 December 1912 in the Giza Zoo, with wild populations having disappeared by 1894–1902. Prince Kamal el Dine Hussein attempted to repopulate Wadi El Natrun with boars of Hungarian stock, but they were quickly exterminated by poachers.[91]
A revival of boar populations began in the middle of the 20th century. By 1950, wild boar had once again reached their original northern boundary in many parts of their Asiatic range. By 1960, they reached
Status in Great Britain
By the 11th century, wild boars were apparently already becoming rare in Britain. A 1087 forestry law enacted by William the Conqueror punished through blinding the unlawful killing of a boar. Charles I attempted to reintroduce the species into the New Forest, but this population was exterminated in the 17th century during the English Civil War. Between their medieval extinction and the 1980s, when wild boar farming began, only a handful of captive wild boar, imported from the continent, were present in Britain. Occasional escapes of wild boar from wildlife parks have occurred as early as the 1970s, but since the early 1990s significant populations have re-established themselves after escapes from farms, the number of which has increased as the demand for meat from the species has grown. A 1998 MAFF (now DEFRA) study on wild boar living wild in Britain confirmed the presence of two populations of wild boar living in Britain; one in Kent/East Sussex and another in Dorset.[85]
Another DEFRA report, in February 2008,. Populations estimates were as follows:
- The largest population, in Kent/East Sussex, was then estimated at 200 animals in the core distribution area.
- The smallest, in west Dorset, was estimated to be fewer than 50 animals.
- Since winter 2005–2006 significant escapes/releases have also resulted in animals colonizing areas around the fringes of Dartmoor, in Devon. These are considered as an additional single 'new breeding population' and currently estimated to be up to 100 animals.
Population estimates for the Forest of Dean are disputed as, at the time that the DEFRA population estimate was 100, a photo of a boar sounder in the forest near Staunton with over 33 animals visible was published and at about the same time over 30 boar were seen in a field near the original escape location of Weston under Penyard many kilometres or miles away. In early 2010 the Forestry Commission embarked on a cull,[93] with the aim of reducing the boar population from an estimated 150 animals to 100. By August it was stated that efforts were being made to reduce the population from 200 to 90, but that only 25 had been killed.[94] The failure to meet cull targets was confirmed in February 2011.[95]
Wild boars have crossed the River Wye into Monmouthshire, Wales. Iolo Williams, the BBC Wales wildlife expert, attempted to film Welsh boar in late 2012.[96] Many other sightings, across the UK, have also been reported.[97] The effects of wild boar on the U.K.'s woodlands were discussed with Ralph Harmer of the Forestry Commission on the BBC Radio's Farming Today radio programme in 2011. The programme prompted activist writer George Monbiot to propose a thorough population study, followed by the introduction of permit-controlled culling.[98]
In Scotland wild boar can be killed legally without a license and are culled by land managers as wild populations appear occasionally.[99]
Introduction to North America
Wild boars are an invasive species in the Americas, having been introduced by European explorers and settlers in the 16th century to serve as a source of food. Wild boars now cause problems including out-competing native species for food, destroying the nests of ground-nesting species, killing fawns and young domestic livestock, destroying agricultural crops, eating tree seeds and seedlings, destroying native vegetation and wetlands through wallowing, damaging water quality, coming into violent conflict with humans and pets and carrying pig and human diseases including brucellosis, trichinosis and pseudorabies. In some jurisdictions, it is illegal to import, breed, release, possess, sell, distribute, trade, transport, hunt, or trap Eurasian boars. Hunting and trapping is done systematically, to increase the chance of eradication and to remove the incentive to illegally release boars, which have mostly been spread deliberately by sport hunters.[100]
History
While domestic pigs, both captive and feral (popularly termed "razorbacks"), have been in North America since the earliest days of European colonization, pure wild boars were not introduced into the New World until the 19th century. The suids were released into the wild by wealthy landowners as big game animals. The initial introductions took place in fenced enclosures, though several escapes occurred, with the escapees sometimes intermixing with already established feral pig populations.
The first of these introductions occurred in New Hampshire in 1890. Thirteen wild boars from Germany were purchased by Austin Corbin from Carl Hagenbeck and released into a 9,500-hectare (23,000-acre) game preserve in Sullivan County. Several of these boars escaped, though they were quickly hunted down by locals. Two further introductions were made from the original stocking, with several escapes taking place due to breaches in the game preserve's fencing. These escapees have ranged widely, with some specimens having been observed crossing into Vermont.[101]
In 1902, 15–20 wild boar from Germany were released into a 3,200-hectare (7,900-acre) estate in Hamilton County, New York. Several specimens escaped six years later, dispersing into the William C. Whitney Wilderness Area, with their descendants surviving for at least 20 years.[101]
The most extensive boar introduction in the US took place in western North Carolina in 1912, when 13 boars of undetermined European origin were released into two fenced enclosures in a game preserve in Hooper Bald, Graham County. Most of the specimens remained in the preserve for the next decade, until a large-scale hunt caused the remaining animals to break through their confines and escape. Some of the boars migrated to Tennessee, where they intermixed with both free-ranging and feral pigs in the area. In 1924, a dozen Hooper Bald wild pigs were shipped to California and released in a property between Carmel Valley and the Los Padres National Forest. These hybrid boar were later used as breeding stock on various private and public lands throughout the state, as well as in other states like Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, West Virginia and Mississippi.[101]
Several wild boars from
Wild boar of unknown origin were stocked in a ranch in the Edwards Plateau in the 1940s, only to escape during a storm and hybridize with local feral pig populations, later spreading into neighboring counties.[101]
Starting in the mid-1980s, several boars purchased from the San Diego Zoo and Tierpark Berlin were released into the United States. A decade later, more specimens from farms in Canada and Białowieża Forest were let loose. In recent years, wild pig populations have been reported in 44 states within the US, most of which are likely wild boar–feral hog hybrids. Pure wild boar populations may still be present, but are extremely localized.[101]
Introduction and lack of control in South America
In
Pest control in Brazil
As a form of control for the wild boar population, hunting and killing are allowed for
Effect on other habitats
Wild boars negatively impact other habitats through the destruction of the environment, or homes of wildlife. When wild boars invade new areas, they adapt to the new area by trampling and rooting, as well as displacing many saplings/nutrients. This causes a decrease in growing of many plants and trees. Water is also affected negatively by wild boars. When wild boars are active in streams, or small pools of water, it causes increased turbidity (excessive silt and particle suspension).[109] In some cases, the fecal coliform concentration increases to dangerous levels because of wild boars. Aquatic wildlife is affected, more prominently fish, and amphibians. Wild boars have caused a great decrease in over 300 animal or plant species, 250 being endangered or threatened.[110]
The boars cause many habitats to become less diverse because of their feeding behaviors and predation. Wild boars will dig up eggs of species and eat them, as well as killing other wildlife for food. When these boars compete with other species for resources, they usually come out successful.[111] A study published in the Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology was conducted on the results of Feral Swine control. Only two years after the control started, the amount of turtle nests jumped from 57 to 143, and the turtle nest predation percent dropped from 74 to 15.[112] They kill and eat deers, lizards, birds, snakes, and more. These boars are called "opportunist omnivores", which means they eat almost anything. This means they can survive almost anywhere. A big surplus of food and the ability to adapt to any new place causes lots of breeding. All of these factors make it difficult to get rid of wild boars.[113]
Diseases and parasites
Wild boars are known to host at least 20 different parasitic worm species, with maximum infections occurring in summer. Young animals are vulnerable to
Swine plague spreads very quickly in wild boar, with epizootics being recorded in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Belarus, the Caucasus, the Far East, Kazakhstan and other regions. Foot-and-mouth disease can also take on epidemic proportions in boar populations. The species occasionally, but rarely contracts Pasteurellosis, hemorrhagic sepsis, tularemia, and anthrax. Wild boar may on occasion contract swine erysipelas through rodents or hog lice and ticks.[4]
Relationships with humans
In culture
The wild boar features prominently in the cultures of
The boar as a warrior also appears in
According to
The boar also appears in
In
In the folklore of the
The boar (
As a game animal and food source
Humans have been hunting boar for millennia, the earliest artistic depictions of such activities dating back to the Upper Paleolithic.[121] The animal was seen as a source of food among the Ancient Greeks, as well as a sporting challenge and source of epic narratives. The Romans inherited this tradition, with one of its first practitioners being Scipio Aemilianus. Boar hunting became particularly popular among the young nobility during the 3rd century BC as preparation for manhood and battle. A typical Roman boar hunting tactic involved surrounding a given area with large nets, then flushing the boar with dogs and immobilizing it with smaller nets. The animal would then be dispatched with a venabulum, a short spear with a crossguard at the base of the blade. More than their Greek predecessors, the Romans extensively took inspiration from boar hunting in their art and sculpture. With the ascension of Constantine the Great, boar hunting took on Christian allegorical themes, with the animal being portrayed as a "black beast" analogous to the dragon of Saint George.[133]
Boar hunting continued after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, though the Germanic tribes considered the red deer to be a more noble and worthy quarry. The post-Roman nobility hunted boar as their predecessors did, but primarily as training for battle rather than sport. It was not uncommon for medieval hunters to deliberately hunt boars during the breeding season when the animals were more aggressive. During the Renaissance, when deforestation and the introduction of firearms reduced boar numbers, boar hunting became the sole prerogative of the nobility, one of many charges brought up against the rich during the German Peasants' War and the French Revolution.[133]
During the mid-20th century, 7,000–8,000 boars were caught in the Caucasus, 6,000–7,000 in Kazakhstan and about 5,000 in Central Asia during the
Wild boar can thrive in captivity, though piglets grow slowly and poorly without their mothers. Products derived from wild boar include meat, hide and bristles.[4] Apicius devotes a whole chapter to the cooking of boar meat, providing 10 recipes involving roasting, boiling and what sauces to use. The Romans usually served boar meat with garum.[135] Boar's head was the centrepiece of most medieval Christmas celebrations among the nobility.[136] Although growing in popularity as a captive-bred source of food, the wild boar takes longer to mature than most domestic pigs and it is usually smaller and produces less meat. Nevertheless, wild boar meat is leaner and healthier than pork,[137] being of higher nutritional value and having a much higher concentration of essential amino acids.[138] Most meat-dressing organizations agree that a boar carcass should yield 50 kg (110 lb) of meat on average. Large specimens can yield 15–20 kg (33–44 lb) of fat, with some giants yielding 30 kg (66 lb) or more. A boar hide can measure 3 m2 (4,700 sq in) and can yield 350–1,000 grams (12–35 oz) of bristle and 400 grams (14 oz) of underwool.[4]
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Roman relief of a dog confronting a boar, Cologne
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Southern Indian depiction of boar hunt, c. 1540
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Pig-sticking inBritish India
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Boar shot in Volgograd Oblast, Russia
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The Boar Hunt – Hans Wertinger, c. 1530, theDanube Valley
Crop and garbage raiding
Boars can be damaging to
In Central Europe, farmers typically repel boars through distraction or fright, while in Kazakhstan it is usual to employ guard dogs in plantations. However, research shows that when compared with other mitigation tactics, hunting is the only strategy to significantly reduce crop damage by boars.[140] Although large boar populations can play an important role in limiting forest growth, they are also useful in keeping pest populations such as June bugs under control.[4] The growth of urban areas and the corresponding decline in natural boar habitats has led to some sounders entering human habitations in search of food. As in natural conditions, sounders in peri-urban areas are matriarchal, though males tend to be much less represented and adults of both sexes can be up to 35% heavier than their forest-dwelling counterparts. As of 2010, at least 44 cities in 15 countries have experienced problems of some kind relating to the presence of habituated wild boar.[141]
A 2023 study found that allowing wild pigs to forage on edible garbage in large regional landfills results in those animals getting physically large/heavier, having larger litters of piglets, and causing more wild pig-vehicle collisions in the vicinity of the landfill. The effects of letting these pigs scavenge in these landfills can present unique challenges to population management, control, public safety, and disease transmission. Wild pigs foraging on edible food waste in landfills has also been identified as a vector that facilitates the spread of African swine fever virus.[142]
Attacks on humans
Actual attacks on humans are rare, but can be serious, resulting in penetrating injuries to the lower part of the body. They generally occur during the boars' rutting season from November to January, in agricultural areas bordering forests or on paths leading through forests. The animal typically attacks by charging and pointing its tusks towards the intended victim, with most injuries occurring on the thigh region. Once the initial attack is over, the boar steps back, takes position and attacks again if the victim is still moving, only ending once the victim is completely incapacitated.[143][144]
Boar attacks on humans have been documented throughout history. The Romans and Ancient Greeks wrote of these attacks (Odysseus was wounded by a boar and Adonis was killed by one). A 2012 study compiling recorded attacks from 1825 to 2012 found accounts of 665 human victims of both wild boars and feral pigs, with the majority (19%) of attacks in the animal's native range occurring in India. Most of the attacks occurred in rural areas during the winter months in non-hunting contexts and were committed by solitary males.[145]
Management
Managing wild boar is a pressing task in both native and invasive contexts as they can be disrupting to other systems when not addressed. Wild boar find their success through adaptation of daily patterns to circumvent threats. They avoid human contact through nocturnal lifestyles, despite the fact that they are not evolutionarily predisposed, and alter their diets substantially based on what is available.[146] These "adaptive generalists", can survive in a variety of landscapes, making the prediction of their movement patterns and any potential close contact areas crucial to limiting damage.[147] All of these qualities make them equally difficult to manage or limit.
Within Central Europe, the native habitat of the wild boar, there has been a push to re-evaluate interactions between wild boar and humans, with the priority of fostering positive engagement. Negative media and public perception of wild boar as "crop raiders" have made those living alongside them less willing to accept the economic damages of their behaviors, as wild boar are seen as pests. This media tone impacts management policy, with every 10 negative articles increasing wild boar policy activity by 6.7%.[148] Contrary to this portrayal, wild boar, when managed well within their natural environments, can be a crucial part of forest ecosystems.
Defining the limits of proper management is difficult, but the exclusion of wild boar from rare environments is generally agreed upon, as when not properly managed, they can damage agricultural ventures and harm vulnerable plant life.[149] These damages are estimated at $800 million yearly in environmental and financial costs for the United States alone.[149] The breadth of this damage is due to prior inattention and lack of management tactics for extended lengths of time.[148] Managing wild boar is a complex task, as it involves coordinating a combination of crop harvest techniques, fencing, toxic bait, corrals, and hunting. The most common tactic employed by private land owners in the United States is recreational hunting, however, this is generally not as effective on its own.[150] Management strategies are most successful when they take into account reproduction, dispersion, and the differences between ideal resources for males and females.[147]
According to a study, wild boars are causing soil disturbance that, among other problems, globally results in annual carbon dioxide emissions equivalent to that of ~1.1 million passenger vehicles (4.9 Mt, 0.01% of all GHG emissions as of 2022), implying that as of 2021 hunted boar meat – unlike other meat products – has beneficial effects on the environment[151][152] even though the effect would diminish if boars are introduced for meat production and consistently retaining small populations of boars may be preferable.
See also
Notes
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I was prompted to write this article by an item I heard on the BBC's Farming Today programme at the beginning of the week. It was an interview with Ralph Harmer, who works for the Forestry Commission, about whether or not the returning boars are damaging our woodlands. I was struck by what the item did not say. Not once did the programme mention that this is a native species. The boar was discussed as if it were an exotic invasive animal, such as the mink or the grey squirrel. […] Then, once we've found out how many boars, […] should be culled to allow a gentle expansion but not an explosion, permits to shoot them should be sold, and the money used to compensate farmers whose crops the boar have damaged. Other hunting should be banned. This is how they do it in France.
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Bibliography
- Cabanau, Laurent (2001). The Hunter's Library: Wild Boar in Europe. Könemann. ISBN 978-3-8290-5528-4.
- Marsan, Andrea; Mattioli, Stefano (2013). Il Cinghiale (in Italian). Il Piviere (collana Fauna selvatica. Biologia e gestione). ISBN 978-88-96348-178.
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Further reading
- Apollonio, M. et al. (1988), "The systematics of the wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) in Italy", Bolletino di Zoologiaa, 3:213–221
- Carden, R.F. (2012) "Review of the Natural History of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) on the island of Ireland" Archived 17 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Report prepared by Ruth Carden for the Northern Ireland Environment Agency, Northern Ireland, UK, National Parks & Wildlife Service, Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, Dublin, Ireland and the National Museum of Ireland – Education & Outreach Department.
- (in French) Durantel, P. (2007), Le sanglier et ses chasses, Editions Artemis, ISBN 2844166032
- Greene, J. (2011), The Golden-Bristled Boar: Last Ferocious Beast of the Forest, University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-3103-7
- Hatto, A. T. (1957) "Snake‐swords and Boar‐helms in Beowulf". In: English Studies, 38:1–6, 145–160. DOI: 10.1080/00138385708596994
- (in French) Marillier, B. (2003), Le sanglier héraldique, Editions Cheminements, ISBN 2844781845
- Mayer, J. J. & Shedrow, C. B. (2007), Annotated Bibliography of the Wild Pig (Sus scrofa): Environmental Information Document, Washington Savannah River Company
- (in Italian) Padiglione, V. (1989), Il cinghiale cacciatore: Antropologia simbolica della caccia in Sardegna, Armando Editore (collana Antropologia culturale)
- Ronald M. Nowak (1999), Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.), Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, LCCN 98023686
External links
- BBC profile
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (9th ed.). 1878. .
- Jokelainen, P.; Näreaho, A.; Hälli, O.; Heinonen, M.; Sukura, A. (2012). "Farmed wild boars exposed to Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp". Veterinary Parasitology. 187 (1–2): 323–327. PMID 22244535.
- Species Profile- Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for wild boar.
- View the susScr3 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.
- A sounder of wild boars
- Wild pigs with piglets – white piglets with black spots
- Sow feeding piglets, Lodz (Poland)
- A wild boar struggling with plastic film, Lodz (Poland