Wild turkey
Wild turkey | |
---|---|
Male (tom/gobblers) eastern wild turkey strutting | |
Female (hen) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Galliformes |
Family: | Phasianidae |
Genus: | Meleagris |
Species: | M. gallopavo
|
Binomial name | |
Meleagris gallopavo | |
Subspecies | |
6, see text | |
Distribution of M. gallopavo |
The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is an upland game bird native to North America, one of two extant species of turkey and the heaviest member of the order Galliformes. It is the ancestor to the domestic turkey, which was originally derived from a southern Mexican subspecies of wild turkey (not the related ocellated turkey).
Description
An adult male (tom or gobbler) normally weighs from 5 to 11 kg (11 to 24 lb) and measures 100–125 cm (39–49 in) in length. The adult female (hen) is typically much smaller at 2.5–5.4 kg (5.5–11.9 lb) and is 76 to 95 cm (30 to 37 in) long.[2][3] Per two large studies, the average weight of adult males is 7.6 kg (17 lb) and the average weight of adult females is 4.26 kg (9.4 lb).[4][5] The record-sized adult male wild turkey, according to the National Wild Turkey Federation, weighed 16.85 kg (37.1 lb), with records of tom turkeys weighing over 13.8 kg (30 lb) uncommon but not rare.[6]
The wings are relatively small, as is typical of the galliform order, and the wingspan ranges from 1.25 to 1.44 m (4 ft 1 in to 4 ft 9 in). The
Fully-grown wild turkeys have long, reddish-yellow to grayish-green legs. Each foot has three front toes, with a shorter, rear-facing toe; males have a spur behind each of their lower legs, used to spar with other males.[9]
The body feathers are generally blackish and dark, sometimes gray-brown, overall, with a coppery sheen that becomes more complex in older males. Mature males have a large, featherless, reddish head and red throat, with red
Males have a long, dark, fan-shaped tail and glossy, bronze wings. As with many other species of
Females have feathers that are duller overall, in shades of brown and gray. Parasites can dull the coloration of both sexes; in males, vivid coloration may serve as a signal of health.[13] The primary wing feathers have white bars. Turkeys have approximately 5,000 to 6,000 feathers.[14] Juvenile males are called jakes; the difference between jakes and toms is that jakes have very short "beards" and tail fans with longer feathers in the middle. The tom's tail fan feathers are uniform in length.[15]
Despite usually being rather lighter than waterfowl, the turkey has the second-highest maximum average weight of any North American bird, after the trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator). By average mass, however, several other American birds surpass the mean weight of the turkey, including the American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), the tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus columbianus) and the endangered California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) and whooping crane (Grus americana).[16][4]
Habitat
Wild turkeys prefer
In
In
Behavior
Flight
Despite their weight, wild turkeys, unlike their
Wild turkeys have very good eyesight, but their vision is very poor at night. They will generally not see a predator until it is too late. At twilight most turkeys will head for the trees and roost well off the ground: it is safer to sleep there in numbers than to risk being victim to predators who hunt by night. Because wild turkeys do not migrate, in snowier parts of the species's habitat like the Northeast, Rockies, much of Canada, and the Midwest, it is very important for this bird to learn to select large conifer trees where they can fly onto the branches and shelter from blizzards.[18]
Vocalizations
Wild turkeys have many calls: assembly call, gobble, plain yelp, purr, cluck and purr, cluck, cutt, excited yelp, fly-down cackle, tree call, kee kee run, and putt.
Foraging
Wild turkeys are
Turkey populations can reach large numbers in small areas because of their ability to forage for different types of food.[citation needed] Early morning and late afternoon are the desired times for eating.
Social structure and mating
Males are polygamous, mating with as many hens as they can. Male wild turkeys display for females by puffing out their feathers, spreading out their tails and dragging their wings. This behavior is most commonly referred to as strutting. Their heads and necks are colored brilliantly with red, white, and blue. The color can change with the turkey's mood, with a solid white head and neck being the most excited. They use gobbling, drumming/booming and spitting as signs of social dominance, and to attract females. Courtship begins during the months of March and April, which is when turkeys are still flocked together in winter areas.
Males may be seen courting in groups, often with the dominant male gobbling, spreading his tail feathers (strutting), drumming/booming and spitting. In a study, the average dominant male that courted as part of a pair of males fathered six more eggs than males that courted alone. Genetic analysis of pairs of males courting together shows that they are close relatives, with half of their genetic material being identical. The theory behind team-courtship is that the less-dominant male has a greater chance of passing along shared genetic material than if he were courting alone.[21]
When mating is finished, females search for nest sites. Nests are shallow dirt depressions engulfed with woody vegetation. Hens lay a clutch of 10–14 eggs, usually one per day. The eggs are incubated for at least 28 days. The poults are
Positive relationships with other wild species
Turkey are known to occasionally forage with deer and squirrels, and may even play with them.[23] By foraging together, each can help the other watch for predators with their different senses: the deer with their improved olfactory sense, the turkey with its superior sight, and squirrels providing an additional set of eyes from the air.[24]
Predators
Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), spotted skunks (Spilogale ssp.), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), gray foxes (Urocyon citnereoargenteus), groundhogs (Marmota monax), among other rodents.[25][26][27][28] Predators of poults in addition to nestlings and eggs also include several species of snake, namely rat snakes (Elaphe ssp.), gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer) and pinesnakes (Pituophis ssp.).
Avian predators of poults include raptors such as bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), barred owl (Strix varia), red-shouldered (Buteo lineatus), red-tailed (Buteo jamaicensis), white-tailed (Geranoaetus albicaudatus), and Harris's hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus)—and the smallish Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) and broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus) (both likely of very small poults).[29][30][31][32][33][34] Mortality of poults is greatest in the first 14 days of life, especially of those roosting on the ground, decreasing most notably after half a year, when they attain near adult sizes.[35]
In addition to poults, hens and adult-sized fledglings (but not, as far as is known, adult male toms) are vulnerable to predation by
Occasionally, if cornered, adult turkeys may try to fight off predators and large male toms can be especially aggressive in self-defense. When fighting off predators, turkeys may kick with their legs, using the spurs on their back of the legs as a weapon, bite with their beak and ram with their relatively large bodies and may be able to deter predators up to the size of mid-sized mammals.[47][48] Hen turkeys have been seen to chase off at least two species of hawks in flight when their poults are threatened.[49]
Wild turkeys are not usually aggressive towards humans, but can be frightened or provoked to behave with aggression. They are most likely to attack if startled, cornered or harassed, or if approached too closely. They also have been seen to chase off humans as well. However, attacks and potential injuries can usually be avoided by giving wild turkeys a respectful amount of space and keeping outdoor spaces clean and undisturbed.[50] Also, turkeys that are habituated to seeing people, at places like parks or campgrounds, can be very tame and will even feed from the hands of people. Male toms occasionally will attack parked cars and reflective surfaces, thinking they see another turkey and must defend their territory, but starting a car engine and moving the car is typically enough to scare it away.
Range and population
The Californian turkey (Meleagris californica) is an extinct species of turkey indigenous to the Pleistocene and early Holocene of California. It became extinct about 10,000 years ago. The present Californian wild turkey population derives from wild birds re-introduced during the 1960s and 1970s from other areas by game officials.[51] They proliferated after 2000 to become an everyday sight in the East Bay Area by 2015.[52]
At the beginning of the 20th century the range and numbers of wild turkeys had plummeted due to hunting and loss of habitat. When Europeans arrived in the New World, they were found from Canada to Mexico in the millions. Europeans and their successors knew nothing about the life cycle of the bird and ecology itself as a science would come too late – not even in its infancy until the end of the 19th century – whereas heavy hunting began in the 17th century. Deforestation destroyed trees turkeys need to roost in. Destruction of subtypes of environment like prairie grassland in the Midwest, canebrakes in the Southeast, and pine in the desert highlands made them easy prey for predators as there was nowhere to hide or lay eggs.
Game managers estimate that the entire population of wild turkeys in the United States was as low as 30,000 by the late 1930s.
Attempts to introduce the wild turkey to
Subspecies
There are subtle differences in the coloration, habitat, and behavior of the different subspecies of wild turkeys. The six subspecies are:
Eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) (Vieillot, 1817)
This was the turkey subspecies Europeans first encountered in the wild: by the
Osceola wild turkey or Florida wild turkey (M. g. osceola) (Scott, 1890)
Most common in the Florida peninsula, they number from 80,000 to 100,000 birds. This bird is named for the famous Seminole leader Osceola, and was first described in 1890. It is smaller and darker than the eastern wild turkey. The wing feathers are very dark with smaller amounts of the white barring seen on other subspecies. Their overall body feathers are an iridescent green-purple color. They are often found in scrub patches of palmetto and occasionally near swamps, where amphibian prey is abundant. Osceola turkeys are the smallest subspecies weighing 16 to 18 pounds (7 to 8 kg).
Rio Grande wild turkey (M. g. intermedia) (Sennett, 1879)
The Rio Grande wild turkey ranges through Texas to
Merriam's wild turkey (M. g. merriami) (Nelson, 1900)
The Merriam's wild turkey ranges through the
Gould's wild turkey (M. g. mexicana) (Gould, 1856)
Native from the central valleys to the northern mountains of Mexico and the southernmost parts of Arizona and New Mexico. Gould's wild turkeys are heavily protected and regulated. The subspecies was first described in 1856. They exist in small numbers in the U.S. but are abundant in northwestern portions of Mexico. A small population has been established in southern Arizona. Gould's are the largest of the six subspecies. They have longer legs, larger feet, and longer tail feathers. The main colors of the body feathers are copper and greenish-gold. This subspecies is heavily protected owing to its skittish nature and threatened status.
South Mexican wild turkey (M. g. gallopavo) (Linnaeus, 1758)
The south Mexican wild turkey is considered the
Benjamin Franklin and the myth of U.S. national bird suggestion
The idea that
Others object to the Bald Eagle, as looking too much like a Dindon, or Turkey. For my own part I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen the Representative of our Country. He is a Bird of bad moral Character. He does not get his Living honestly. You may have seen him perched on some dead Tree near the River, where, too lazy to fish for himself, he watches the Labour of the Fishing Hawk [osprey]; and when that diligent Bird has at length taken a Fish, and is bearing it to his Nest for the Support of his Mate and young Ones, the Bald Eagle pursues him and takes it from him. With all this Injustice, he is never in good Case but like those among Men who live by Sharping & Robbing he is generally poor and often very lousy. Besides he is a rank Coward: The little King Bird not bigger than a Sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the District. He is therefore by no means a proper Emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America who have driven all the King birds from our Country ...
I am on this account not displeased that the Figure is not known as a Bald Eagle, but looks more like a Turkey. For in Truth the Turkey is in Comparison a much more respectable Bird, and withal a true original Native of America ... He is besides, though a little vain & silly, a Bird of Courage, and would not hesitate to attack a Grenadier of the British Guards who should presume to invade his Farm Yard with a red Coat on.
Franklin never publicly voiced opposition to the bald eagle as a national symbol, nor did he ever publicly suggest the turkey as a national symbol.[62][63]
Significance to Native Americans
The wild turkey, throughout its range, plays a significant role in the cultures of many
Significant peoples of several tribes, including
See also
- Heritage turkey
- Turkey calls
- Turkeypox virus
Notes
- . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ^ "Wild Turkey". National Geographic. 11 November 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-11-24. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
- ^ Kirschbaum, K.; McCullough, J. (2001). "Meleagris gallopavo wild turkey". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Archived from the original on 2023-04-01. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
- ^ ISBN 0849342589.
- ISBN 9781420064445.
- ^ "NWTF Wild Turkey Records". nwtf.org. National Wild Turkey Federation. Archived from the original on 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
- ^ "Birds Master Database Search". flmnh.ufl.edu. Florida Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 2016-09-25. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
- ISBN 9780691089089.
- ^ "Welcome to the Turkey Habitat" (PDF). Habitat Tracker. Florida State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
- PMID 26776107.
- ^ a b c Craves, J. (30 April 2021). "Julie Craves explains Wild Turkey 'beards'". BirdWatching. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
- ^ a b McKee, J. (18 November 2022). "Let's Talk Turkey Beards". Audubon. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
- S2CID 39103898.
- ^ "Wild Turkey Facts". nwtf.org. National Wild Turkey Federation. Archived from the original on 2009-11-13. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
- ^ "What Does a Wild Turkey Look Like?". nwtf.org. National Wild Turkey Federation. Archived from the original on 2012-11-08. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
- ISBN 9780851122359.
- ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2008). Wild turkey: Meleagris gallopavo, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg Archived 2017-07-25 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Wild Turkey Behavior". www.nwtf.org. Archived from the original on 2018-11-13. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
- ^ "The Sounds of the Wild Turkey". National Wild Turkey Federation. August 10, 2021. Retrieved August 21, 2023.
- ^ a b Kirschbaum, Kari; McCullough, Jason. "Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey)". Animal Diversity Web. Archived from the original on 2020-11-24. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
- S2CID 1457512.
- S2CID 90478338.
- ^ "Turkeys Play with Deer and Squirrels". BBC Earth. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
- ^ "My Life as a Turkey". BBC Nature. 2011–2012. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
- ^ Baker, B. W. (1978). "Ecological factors affecting wild turkey nest predation on south Texas rangelands". Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 32: 126–36.
- S2CID 86170120.
- ^ Pharris, L. D.; Goetz, R. C. (1980). "An evaluation of artificial wild turkey nests monitored by automatic cameras". Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium. 4: 108–16.
- ^ Williams, L. E.; Austin, D. H.; Eichholz, N. F. (1976). "The breeding potential of the wild turkey hen". Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies. 30: 371–6.
- ^ Reagan, J. M.; Morgan, K.D. (1980). "Reproductive potential of Rio Grande turkey hens in the Edwards Plateau of Texas". Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 4: 136–44.
- ^ Peoples, J. C.; Sisson, D. C.; Speake, D. W. (1995). "Mortality of wild turkey poults in coastal plain pine forests". Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 49: 448–53.
- ^ Beasom, S.L.; Pattee, O.H. (1975). "An Encounter between a Turkey and a Bullsnake". Wilson Bulletin. 87 (2): 281–2.
- S2CID 53310713.
- JSTOR 1367485.
- JSTOR 1366672.
- ^ Glidden, J. W.; Austin, D. E. (1975). "Natality and mortality of wild turkey poults in southwestern New York". Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 3: 48–54.
- ^ Schemnitz, S.D.; Goerndt, D.L.; Jones, H. (1985). "Habitat needs and management of Merriam's turkeys in southcentral New Mexico". Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 5: 199–232.
- ^ Golet, G.H.; Golet, H.T.; Colton, A. (2003). "Immature Northern Goshawk Captures, Kills, and Feeds on Adult-Sized Wild Turkey". Journal of Raptor Research. 37 (4): 337–40.
- S2CID 43335225.
- JSTOR 3801809.
- S2CID 55402865.
- ^ Beasom, S. L.; Moore, R. A. (1977). "Bobcat food habit response to a change in prey abundance". The Southwestern Naturalist: 451–7.
- JSTOR 3809651.
- ^ Lehman, C. P.; Thompson, D. J. (2004). "Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) predation attempts on Merriam's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) in the southern Black Hills, South Dakota". Journal of Raptor Research. 38 (2): 192.
- ^ Stratman, M. R.; Pelton, M. R. (1999). "Feeding ecology of black bears in northwest Florida". Florida Field Naturalist. 27 (3): 95–102.
- ^ ADW: Meleagris gallopavo: INFORMATION Archived 2011-06-11 at the Wayback Machine. Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu (2006-03-12). Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
- ^ Kennamer, James Earl. Predators and Wild Turkeys Archived 2008-08-07 at the Wayback Machine. NWTF Wildlife Bulletin NO.16
- ^ Wild Turkey Predators, Wild Turkey Predation: National Wild Turkey Federation Archived 2012-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. Nwtf.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
- ^ Wild Turkey Predators Archived 2012-06-26 at the Wayback Machine. Waterandwoods.net (2008-09-20). Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
- JSTOR 4082208.
- ^ Living with wildlife: Turkey: Minnesota DNR Archived 2012-10-28 at the Wayback Machine. Dnr.state.mn.us. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
- ^ California Department of Fish and Game. Wild Turkey Guide 2005 Archived 2008-10-27 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Rubio, Tena (November 27, 2015). "Like It or Not, Wild Turkeys Proliferate in East Bay". kqed.org. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
- ISBN 9781903018439. Archivedfrom the original on 2016-05-09. Retrieved 2017-11-22.
- ^ Dickson, pp. 368-379
- ^ These birds were imported from Mexico, then called the Spanish West Indies. They did not come from Turkey or India, as was widely believed."Talking Turkey", World Wide Words. On line. Archived 2006-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Dickson, p. 363; Maxwell, William Hamilton, The field book; or, Sports and pastimes of the British islands, by the author of 'Wild sports of the West, p. 540, London, 1833, Internet Archive
- ^ Dickson, pp. 363-368
- ^ Kennamer, Mary C. "NWTF Wildlife Bulletin No. 3: Rio Grande Wild Turkey" (PDF). NWTF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ "Oregon State Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Division, Wild Turkey Management Plan" Archived 2011-06-20 at the Wayback Machine.
- PMID 22905156.
- ^ "Benjamin Franklin to Sarah Bache, January 26, 1784". Manuscript Division. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved January 28, 2018.
- ^ a b "The Arms of the United States: Benjamin Franklin and the Turkey". American Heraldry Society. Americanheraldry.org. 2007-05-18. MMM. Archived from the original on 2014-04-27. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
- ^ "Did Benjamin Franklin want the national bird to be a turkey?". Franklin Institute. Benjamin Franklin frequently asked questions. 28 June 2017. Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
- ^ Pritzker 367
- ^ Pritzker 381, 474
- ^ Pritzker 423
- ^ "Caddo Nation Today." Archived 2010-11-13 at the Wayback Machine Texas Beyond History. (retrieved 28 Dec 2010)
References
- Dickson, James G., The Wild Turkey: Biology and Management (A National Wild Turkey Federation and USDA Forest Service book), 1992, Stackpole Books, ISBN 081171859X, 9780811718592, google books
- Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
External links
- Turkey as U.S. national bird
- Turkeys from England
- National Wild Turkey Federation – Map of the locations of the five sub-species of wild turkey
- View the turkey genome in Ensembl
- "Wild turkey media". Internet Bird Collection.
- Wild turkey photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)