William Shockley
William Bradford Shockley Jr. (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American inventor, physicist, and eugenicist. He was the manager of a research group at Bell Labs that included John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. The three scientists were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for "their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".[1]
Partly as a result of Shockley's attempts to commercialize a new transistor design in the 1950s and 1960s, California's Silicon Valley became a hotbed of electronics innovation. He recruited brilliant employees, but quickly alienated them with his autocratic and erratic management; they left and founded major companies in the industry.[2]
In his later life, while a professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University and afterward, Shockley became known as a racist and eugenicist.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Early life and education
Shockley was born to American parents in
Shockley earned his Bachelor of Science degree from Caltech in 1932 and a PhD from MIT in 1936. The title of his doctoral thesis was Electronic Bands in Sodium Chloride, a topic suggested by his thesis advisor, John C. Slater.[14]
Career
Shockley was one of the first recruits to
Shockley published a number of fundamental papers on solid state physics in Physical Review. In 1938, he received his first patent, "Electron Discharge Device", on electron multipliers.[17]
When World War II broke out, Shockley's prior research was interrupted and he became involved in radar research in Manhattan (New York City). In May 1942, he took leave from Bell Labs to become a research director at Columbia University's Anti-Submarine Warfare Operations Group.[18] This involved devising methods for countering the tactics of submarines with improved convoying techniques, optimizing depth charge patterns, and so on. Shockley traveled frequently to the Pentagon and Washington to meet high-ranking officers and government officials.[19]
In 1944, he organized a training program for
In July 1945, the War Department asked Shockley to prepare a report on the question of probable casualties from an invasion of the Japanese mainland. Shockley concluded:
If the study shows that the behavior of nations in all historical cases comparable to Japan's has in fact been invariably consistent with the behavior of the troops in battle, then it means that the Japanese dead and ineffectives at the time of the defeat will exceed the corresponding number for the Germans. In other words, we shall probably have to kill at least 5 to 10 million Japanese. This might cost us between 1.7 and 4 million casualties including 400,000 to 800,000 killed.[21]
This report influenced the decision of the United States to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which preceded the surrender of Japan.[22]
Shockley was the first physicist to propose a log-normal distribution to model the creation process for scientific research papers.[23]
Development of the transistor
Shortly after the war ended in 1945, Bell Labs formed a solid-state physics group, led by Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan, which included
By the winter of 1946 they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to Physical Review. Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with electrolytes. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily. Finally they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley, put a voltage on a droplet of glycol borate placed across a p–n junction.[25]
Bell Labs' attorneys soon discovered Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and devices based on it patented in 1930 by
Shockley's name was not on any of these patent applications. This angered Shockley, who thought his name should also be on the patents because the work was based on his field effect idea. He even made efforts to have the patent written only in his name, and told Bardeen and Brattain of his intentions.[28]
Shockley, angered by not being included on the patent applications, secretly continued his own work to build a different sort of transistor based on junctions instead of point contacts; he expected this kind of design would be more likely to be commercially viable. The point contact transistor, he believed, would prove to be fragile and difficult to manufacture. Shockley was also dissatisfied with certain parts of the explanation for how the point contact transistor worked and conceived of the possibility of
On February 13, 1948, another team member, John N. Shive, built a point contact transistor with bronze contacts on the front and back of a thin wedge of germanium, proving that holes could diffuse through bulk germanium and not just along the surface as previously thought.[29]: 153 [30]: 145 Shive's invention sparked[31] Shockley's invention of the junction transistor.[29]: 143 A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust, type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure. This structure went on to be used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s, and evolved into the bipolar junction transistor. Shockley later described the workings of the team as a "mixture of cooperation and competition". He also said that he kept some of his own work secret until his "hand was forced" by Shive's 1948 advance.[32] Shockley worked out a rather complete description of what he called the "sandwich" transistor, and a first proof of principle was obtained on April 7, 1949.
Meanwhile, Shockley worked on his
This resulted in his invention of the bipolar "junction transistor", which was announced at a press conference on July 4, 1951.[34]
In 1951, he was elected to the
The ensuing publicity generated by the "invention of the transistor" often thrust Shockley to the fore, much to the chagrin of Bardeen and Brattain. Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Though Shockley would correct the record where reporters gave him sole credit for the invention,[36] he eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, and he essentially blocked the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention.[37]
Shockley left Bell Labs around 1953 and took a job at Caltech.[38]
Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.[1]
Shockley Semiconductor
In 1956, Shockley started
Shockley recruited brilliant employees to his company, but alienated them by undermining them relentlessly.
A group of about thirty colleagues have met on and off since 1956 to reminisce about their time with Shockley as, the group's organizer said in 2002, "the man who brought silicon to Silicon Valley".[46]
Racist and eugenicist views
After Shockley left his role as director of Shockley Semiconductor, he joined Stanford University, where he was appointed the Alexander M. Poniatoff Professor of Engineering and Applied Science in 1963, a position which he held until he retired as a professor emeritus in 1975.[47]
In the last two decades of his life, Shockley, who had no degree in
Shockley was one of the
Shockley insisted that he was not a racist.[53][55] He wrote that his findings do not support white supremacy, instead claiming that East Asians and Jews fare better than whites intellectually.[53] In 1973, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee professor Edgar G. Epps wrote that "I am pleased that Professor Shockley is not an Aryan supremacist, but I would remind him that a theory espousing hereditary superiority of Orientals or Jews is just as racist in nature as the Aryan supremacy doctrine".[53]
Shockley's advocacy of eugenics triggered protests. In one incident, the science society Sigma Xi, fearing violence, canceled a 1968 convocation in Brooklyn where Shockley was scheduled to speak.[56]
In Atlanta in 1981, Shockley filed a
Shockley was a candidate for the Republican nomination in the 1982 United States Senate election in California. He ran on a single-issue platform of opposing the "dysgenic threat" that he alleged African-Americans and other groups posed.[60][54][61] He came in eighth place in the primary, receiving 8,308 votes and 0.37% of the vote.[62] According to Shurkin, by this time, "His racism destroyed his credibility. Almost no one wanted to be associated with him, and many of those who were willing did him more harm than good."[63]
Personal life
At age 23 and while still a student, Shockley married Jean Bailey in August 1933. The couple had two sons and a daughter.[64] Shockley separated from her in 1953.[38] He married Emily Lanning, a psychiatric nurse, in 1955; she helped him with some of his theories.[38][65] Although one of his sons earned a PhD at Stanford University and his daughter graduated from Radcliffe College, Shockley believed his children "represent a very significant regression ... my first wife – their mother – had not as high an academic-achievement standing as I had."[3]
Shockley was an accomplished rock climber, going often to the Shawangunks in the Hudson River Valley. His route across an overhang, known as "Shockley's Ceiling", is one of the classic climbing routes in the area.[25][66] Several[verification needed] climbing guidebooks changed the route's name to "The Ceiling" in 2020 due to Shockley's eugenics controversies.[67] He was popular as a speaker, lecturer, and amateur magician. He once "magically" produced a bouquet of roses at the end of his address before the American Physical Society. He was also known in his early years for elaborate practical jokes.[68] He had a longtime hobby of raising ant colonies.[12]
Shockley
According to
Death
Shockley died of
Honors
- National Medal of Merit, for his war work in 1946.[20]
- Comstock Prize in Physics of the National Academy of Sciences in 1953.[73]
- First recipient of the Oliver E. BuckleySolid State Physics Prize of the American Physical Society in 1953.
- Co-recipient of the Walter Brattain. In his Nobel lecture, he gave full credit to Brattain and Bardeen as the inventors of the point-contact transistor.
- Holley Medal of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1963.
- Wilhelm Exner Medal in 1963.[74]
- Honorary science doctorates from the University of Pennsylvania, Rutgers University in New Jersey, and Gustavus Adolphus Colleges in Minnesota.
- IEEE Medal of Honor from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 1980.
- Named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.
- Listed at No. 3 on the MIT.
Patents
Shockley was granted over ninety US patents.[75] Some notable ones are:
- US 2502488 Semiconductor Amplifier. April 4, 1950; his first granted patent involving transistors.
- US 2569347 Circuit element utilizing semiconductive material. September 25, 1951; His earliest applied for (June 26, 1948) patent involving transistors.
- US 2655609 Bistable Circuits. October 13, 1953; Used in computers.
- US 2787564 Forming Semiconductive Devices by Ionic Bombardment. April 2, 1957; The diffusion process for implantation of impurities.
- US 3031275 Process for Growing Single Crystals. April 24, 1962; Improvements on process for production of basic materials.
- US 3053635 Method of Growing Silicon Carbide Crystals. September 11, 1962; Exploring other semiconductors.
Bibliography
Prewar scientific articles by Shockley
- Johnson, R. P.; Shockley, W. (March 15, 1936). "An Electron Microscope for Filaments: Emission and Adsorption by Tungsten Single Crystals". Physical Review. 49 (6). American Physical Society (APS): 436–440. ISSN 0031-899X.
- Slater, J. C.; Shockley, W. (October 15, 1936). "Optical Absorption by the Alkali Halides". Physical Review. 50 (8). American Physical Society (APS): 705–719. ISSN 0031-899X.
- Shockley, William (October 15, 1936). "Electronic Energy Bands in Sodium Chloride". Physical Review. 50 (8). American Physical Society (APS): 754–759. ISSN 0031-899X.
- Shockley, W. (October 15, 1937). "The Empty Lattice Test of the Cellular Method in Solids". Physical Review. 52 (8). American Physical Society (APS): 866–872. ISSN 0031-899X.
- Shockley, William (August 15, 1939). "On the Surface States Associated with a Periodic Potential". Physical Review. 56 (4). American Physical Society (APS): 317–323. ISSN 0031-899X.
- Steigman, J.; Shockley, W.; Nix, F. C. (July 1, 1939). "The Self-Diffusion of Copper". Physical Review. 56 (1). American Physical Society (APS): 13–21. ISSN 0031-899X.
Postwar articles by Shockley
- Shockley, W. (1949). "The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 435–489. ISSN 0005-8580.
- Shockley, W.; Pearson, G. L.; Haynes, J. R. (1949). "Hole Injection in Germanium-Quantitative Studies and Filamentary Transistors". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 344–366. ISSN 0005-8580.
- Shockley, W. (1951). "Hot Electrons in Germanium and Ohm's Law". Bell System Technical Journal. 30 (4). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 990–1034. ISSN 0005-8580.
- Shockley, W. (1954). "Negative Resistance Arising from Transit Time in Semiconductor Diodes". Bell System Technical Journal. 33 (4). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 799–826. ISSN 0005-8580.
- Sze, S. M.; Shockley, W. (May 6, 1967). "Unit-Cube Expression for Space-Charge Resistance". Bell System Technical Journal. 46 (5). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 837–842. ISSN 0005-8580.
- "On the Statistics of Individual Variations of Productivity in Research Laboratories", Shockley 1957
- On heredity, dysgenics and social issues:
- Shockley 1965, "Is Quality of US Population Declining." U.S. News & World Report, November 22, pp. 68–71
- Shockley 1966, "Possible Transfer of Metallurgical and Astronomical Approaches to Problem of Environment versus Ethnic Heredity" (on an early form of admixture analysis)
- Shockley 1966, "Population Control or Eugenics." In J. D. Roslansky (ed.), Genetics and the Future of Man (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts)
- Shockley 1967, "The Entrenched Dogmatism of Inverted Liberals", manuscript by Shockley from which major portions were read in lectures
- Shockley 1968, "Proposed Research to Reduce Racial Aspects of the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty", proposal read by Shockley before the National Academy of Science on April 24, 1968
- Shockley 1968, "Ten Point Position Statement on Human Quality Problems", revised by Shockley from a talk which he presented on "Human Quality Problems and Research Taboos"
- Shockley 1969, "An Analysis Leading to a Recommendation Concerning Inquiry into Eugenic Legislation", press release by Shockley, Stanford University, April 28, 1969
- Shockley 1970, "A 'Try Simplest Cases' Approach to the Heredity-Poverty-Crime Problem." In V. L. Allen (ed.), Psychological Factors in Poverty (Chicago: Markham)
- Shockley 1979, "Proposed NAS Resolution, drafted October 17, 1970", proposed by Shockley before the National Academy of Sciences
- Shockley 1970, "New Methodology to Reduce the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty About Dysgenics"
- Shockley 1971, "Hardy-Weinberg Law Generalized to Estimate Hybrid Variance for Negro Populations and Reduce Racial Aspects of the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty"
- Shockley 1971, "Dysgenics – A Social Problem Evaded by the Illusion of Infinite Plasticity of Human Intelligence?", manuscript planned for reading at the American Psychological Association Symposium entitled: "Social Problems: Illusion, Delusion or Reality."
- "Models, Mathematics, and the Moral Obligation to Diagnose the Origin of Negro IQ Deficits", W. Shockley, (1971) [76]
- "Negro IQ Deficit: Failure of a 'Malicious Coincidence' Model Warrants New Research Proposals", Shockley 1971[77]
- "Dysgenics, Geneticity, Raceology: A Challenge to the Intellectual Responsibility of Educators", Shockley 1972a[78]
- "A Debate Challenge: Geneticity Is 80% for White Identical Twins' I.Q.'s", Shockley 1972b[79]
- Shockley 1972, "Proposed Resolution Regarding the 80% Geneticity Estimate for Caucasian IQ", advance press release concerning a paper presented by Shockley
- Shockley 1973, "Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg Frequencies Caused by Assortative Mating in Hybrid Populations"[80]
- Shockley 1974, "Eugenic, or Anti-Dysgenic, Thinking Exercises", press release by Shockley dated 1974 May 3
- Shockley 1974, "Society Has a Moral Obligation to Diagnose Tragic Racial IQ Deficits", prepared statement by Shockley to be read during his debate against Roy Innis
- Shockley 1978, "Has Intellectual Humanitarianism Gone Berserk?", introductory statement read by Shockley prior to a lecture given by him at UT Dallas
- Shockley 1979, "Anthropological Taboos About Determinations of Racial Mixes", press release by Shockley on October 16, 1979
- Shockley 1980, "Sperm Banks and Dark-Ages Dogmatism", position paper presented by Shockley in a lecture to the Rotary Club of Chico, California, April 16, 1980
- Shockley 1981, "Intelligence in Trouble", article by Shockley published in Leaders magazine, issue dated 1981 June 15
Books by Shockley
- Shockley, William – Electrons and holes in semiconductors, with applications to transistor electronics, Krieger (1956) ISBN 0-88275-382-7
- Shockley, William and Gong, Walter A – Mechanics Charles E. Merrill, Inc. (1966)
- Shockley, William and Pearson, Roger – Shockley on Eugenics and Race: The Application of Science to the Solution of Human Problems, Scott-Townsend (1992) ISBN 1-878465-03-1
Interviews
- Interview of William Shockley by Lillian Hoddeson on 1974 Sep. 10, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD USA
- Playboy 1980, William Shockley interview with Playboy
Notes
Citations
- ^ a b Borrell, Jerry (2001). "They would be gods". Upside. 13 (10): 53 – via ABI/INFORM Global.
- ^ a b c SFGATE, Mike Moffitt (August 21, 2018). "How a racist genius created Silicon Valley by being a terrible boss". SFGATE. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Boyer, Edward J. (August 14, 1989). "Controversial Nobel Laureate Shockley Dies". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 11, 2015.
- ^ Saxon 1989
- ^ Sparks, Hogan & Linville 1991, pp. 130–132
- ^ a b "Inventors of the transistor followed diverse paths after 1947 discovery". Bangor Daily News. Associated Press. December 26, 1987. Retrieved July 13, 2022.
Although he has received less publicity in recent years, his views have become, if anything, more extreme. He suggested in an interview the possibility of bonus payments to black people for undergoing voluntary sterilization.
- ^ a b "Palo Alto History". www.paloaltohistory.org. Retrieved December 14, 2020.
In Palo Alto, William's temper improved little at first. But ignoring psychiatric recommendations for more socialization, his parents decided to home school William until age eight. Finally, feeling they were unable to keep him out of a school setting any longer, they sent him to the Homer Avenue School for two years, where his behavior improved dramatically --- he even earned an "A" in comportment in his first year.
- S2CID 253582584.
- .
- ^ Shurkin 2006, p. 5
- ^ "William Shockley". American Institute of Physics. September 10, 1974. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
- ^ a b Hiltzik, Michael A. (December 2, 2001). "The Twisted Legacy of William Shockley". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ Moll, John L. (1995). A Biographical Memoir of William Bradford Shockley (PDF). Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
- ^ Shurkin 2006, pp. 38–39
- ^ a b Transistor – Innovation at Bell Labs Encyclopedia Britannica
- .
- ^ Shurkin 2006, p. 48
- ^ Broken Genius p. 65–67
- OCLC 1149147965.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ a b Shurkin 2006, p. 85
- ^ Giangreco 1997, p. 568
- JSTOR 366722.
- ^ The Artful Universe by John D. Barrow, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995, p. 239
- ^ Brattain quoted in Crystal Fire p. 127
- ^ a b Crystal Fire p.132
- ^ CA 272437 "Electric current control mechanism", first filed in Canada on October 22, 1925
- ^ Lilienfeld Archived October 2, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "William Shockley". IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Retrieved July 18, 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-393-31851-7.
- ISBN 978-0-309-08408-6. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
- Diana Buchwald (March–April 2003). "John Who?". American Scientist. Vol. 91, no. 2. Archived from the original on January 2, 2015.
- ^ Brittain 1984, p. 1695 "an observation that William Shockley interpreted as confirmation of his concept of that junction transistor"
- ^ "Inventors of the transistor followed diverse paths after 1947 discovery". Associated press – Bangor Daily news. December 25, 1987. Retrieved May 6, 2012.
'mixture of cooperation and competition' and 'Shockley, eager to make his own contribution, said he kept some of his own work secret until "my hand was forced" in early 1948 by an advance reported by John Shive, another Bell Laboratories researcher'
- ^ Broken Genius, p 121-122
- ^ "1951 – First grown-junction transistors fabricated". Computer History Museum. 2007. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
- ^ "Comstock Prize".
- ^ ScienCentral, ScienCentral. "Bill Shockley, Part 3 of 3". www.pbs.org.
- ^ Crystal Fire p. 278
- ^ a b c d e "Transistorized! William Shockley". www.pbs.org. 1999. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
- ^ "Holding On". The New York Times. April 6, 2008. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
In 1955, the physicist William Shockley set up a semiconductor laboratory in Mountain View, partly to be near his mother in Palo Alto. ...
- ^ "Two Views of Innovation, Colliding in Washington". The New York Times. January 13, 2008. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
The co-inventor of the transistor and the founder of the valley's first chip company, William Shockley, moved to Palo Alto, Calif., because his mother lived there. ...
- ^ a b "Electronics Pioneer William Shockley's Legacy". NPR.org. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
- ^ "Silicon Valley | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org. 2013. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
- ^ a b Crystal Fire p. 247
- ^ Goodheart 2006 "Fed up with their boss, eight lab workers walked off the job on this day in Mountain View, Calif. Their employer, William Shockley, had decided not to continue research into silicon-based semiconductors; frustrated, they decided to undertake the work on their own. The researchers — who would become known as 'the traitorous eight' — went on to invent the microprocessor (and to found Intel, among other companies).
- ^ Gregory Gromov. "A legal bridge spanning 100 years: from the gold mines of El Dorado to the "golden" startups of Silicon Valley".
- ^ Dawn Levy (October 22, 2002). "William Shockley: still controversial, after all these years" (Press release). Stanford University. Archived from the original on April 4, 2005. Retrieved June 14, 2005.
- ^ Crystal Fire p. 277
- ^ Shurkin 2006, p. 52.
- ^ "Firing Line with William F. Buckley Jr.: Shockley's Thesis (Episode S0145, Recorded on June 10, 1974)". YouTube. Archived from the original on November 17, 2021. Retrieved September 17, 2017.
- ^ OCLC 1091236746.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Shurkin 2006, p. 221-223.
- ISBN 1-878465-03-1
- ^ .
- ^ a b "William Shockley". Southern Poverty Law Center.
- ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved March 29, 2023.
- ^ Shurkin 2006, p. 219-220.
- ^ Kessler, Ronald. "Absent at the Creation; How one scientist made off with the biggest invention since the light bulb". Archived from the original on February 24, 2015.
- ^ Shurkin 2006, pp. 259–260 "Essentially, the jury agreed that Witherspoon's column met the standards of defamation, but that by then, Shockley's reputation wasn't worth very much."
- ^ Shurkin 2006, p. 286
- ^ Moll, John L. (1995). "William Bradford Shockley 1910—1989" (PDF). National Academy of Sciences.
- ^ "Shockley, Nobel Winner, Files for Senate Race in California". The New York Times. February 12, 1982.
- ^ "CA US Senate – D Primary". OurCampaigns. Retrieved November 12, 2019.
- ^ Shurkin 2006, p. 268.
- ^ A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: William Shockley PBS
- OCLC 1162253791.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ "Shockley's Ceiling". Mountain Project. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
- ^ "Rock Climb The Ceiling, The Gunks". Mountain Project. Retrieved September 16, 2020.
- ^ Crystal Fire p. 45
- ^ Kulman, Doris (September 19, 1982). "'Banker's' assets misdirected". The Daily Register. p. 47.
According to the bank's owner-operator, California millionaire Robert T. Graham, three Nobel Prize-winning scientists are among those who have sperm on deposit.
- ^ Polly Morrice (July 3, 2005). "The Genius Factory: Test-Tube Superbabies". The New York Times. Retrieved February 12, 2008.
- ^ "William B. Shockley, 79, Creator of Transistor and Theory on Race". The New York Times. August 14, 1989. Archived from the original on October 15, 2009. Retrieved July 21, 2007.
He drew further scorn when he proposed financial rewards for the genetically disadvantaged if they volunteered for sterilization.
- ^ "William Shockley (Part 3 of 3): Confusion over Credit". PBS. 1999. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
- ^ "Comstock Prize in Physics". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2011.
- ^ Editor, ÖGV. (2015). Wilhelm Exner Medal. Austrian Trade Association. ÖGV. Austria.
- ^ "Google Patents assignee:(Shockley William)". patents.google.com. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
- JSTOR 1169443.
- JSTOR 1169529.
- JSTOR 20373194.
- JSTOR 20373251.
- PMID 4514986.
Other notes
- Park, Lubinski & Benbow 2010, "There were two young boys, Luis Alvarez and William Shockley, who were among the many who took Terman's tests but missed the cutoff score. Despite their exclusion from a study of young 'geniuses,' both went on to study physics, earn PhDs, and win the Nobel prize."
- Leslie 2000, "We also know that two children who were tested but didn't make the cut – William Shockley and Luis Alvarez – went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. According to Hastorf, none of the Terman kids ever won a Nobel or Pulitzer."
- Shurkin 2006, p. 13 (See also "The Truth About the 'Termites'" Kaufman, S. B. 2009)
- Simonton 1999, p. 4 "When Terman first used the IQ test to select a sample of child geniuses, he unknowingly excluded a special child whose IQ did not make the grade. Yet a few decades later that talent received the Nobel Prize in physics: William Shockley, the cocreator of the transistor. Ironically, not one of the more than 1,500 children who qualified according to his IQ criterion received so high an honor as adults."
- Eysenck 1998, pp. 127–128 "Terman, who originated those 'Genetic Studies of Genius', as he called them, selected ... children on the basis of their high IQs, the mean was 151 for both sexes. Seventy–seven who were tested with the newly translated and standardized Binet test had IQs of 170 or higher–well at or above the level of Cox's geniuses. What happened to these potential geniuses–did they revolutionize society? ... The answer in brief is that they did very well in terms of achievement, but none reached the Nobel Prize level, let alone that of genius. ... It seems clear that these data powerfully confirm the suspicion that intelligence is not a sufficient trait for truly creative achievement of the highest grade."
References
- Brittain, J.E. (1984). "Becker and Shive on the transistor". Proceedings of the IEEE. 72 (12): 1695. S2CID 1616808.
an observation that William Shockley interpreted as confirmation of his concept of that junction transistor
- Eysenck, Hans (1998). Intelligence: A New Look. New Brunswick (NJ): ISBN 978-0-7658-0707-6.
- Giangreco, D. M. (1997). "Casualty Projections for the U.S. Invasions of Japan, 1945-1946: Planning and Policy Implications". S2CID 159870872.
- Goodheart, Adam (July 2, 2006). "10 Days That Changed History". The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
- Leslie, Mitchell (July–August 2000). "The Vexing Legacy of Lewis Terman". Stanford Magazine. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
- Park, Gregory; Lubinski, David; Benbow, Camilla P. (November 2, 2010). "Recognizing Spatial Intelligence". Scientific American. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
- Shurkin, Joel (2006). Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley, Creator of the Electronic Age. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8815-7.
- Brian Clegg (June 2, 2013). "Review - Broken Genius - Joel Shurkin". Popular Science. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved November 13, 2010.
- Simonton, Dean Keith (1999). Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. JSTOR 3080746.
- Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1997). Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age. Sloan Technology Series. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04124-8.
- Arthur P. Molella (July 2000). "Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age (review)". Technology and Culture. 41 (3): 623–625. .
- Saxon, Wolfgang (August 14, 1989). "William B. Shockley, 79, Creator of Transistor and Theory on Race". The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
He drew further scorn when he proposed financial rewards for the genetically disadvantaged if they volunteered for sterilization.
- "Contributors to Proceedings of the I.R.E." Proceedings of the I.R.E. November 1952. p. 1611. Archived from the original on November 26, 2012.
- ISSN 0031-9228.
- ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9.
- Andrew S. Winston (July 2003). "The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund (review)". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 58 (3): 391–392. .
External links
- National Academy of Sciences biography
- William Shockley on Nobelprize.org including his Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1956 Transistor Technology Evokes New Physics
- PBS biography
- Gordon Moore. Biography of William Shockley Time Magazine
- Interview with Shockley biographer Joel Shurkin
- Oral history interview transcript for William Shockley on 10 September 1974, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - interview conducted by Lillian Hoddeson in Murray Hill, New Jersey
- History of the transistor
- William Shockley (IEEE Global History Network)
- Shockley and Bardeen-Brattain patent disputes
- William Shockley vs. Francis Cress-Welsing (Tony Brown Show, 1974)
- William Bradford Shockley Papers (SC0222) at Department of Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University Libraries