Wolf hunting
Wolf hunting is the practice of hunting wolves. Wolves are mainly hunted for sport, for their skins, to protect livestock and, in some rare cases, to protect humans.[1] Wolves have been actively hunted since 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, when they first began to pose a threat to livestock of Neolithic human communities.[2] Historically, the hunting of wolves was a huge capital- and manpower-intensive operation. The threat wolves posed to both livestock and people was considered significant enough to warrant the conscription of whole villages under threat of punishment, despite the disruption of economic activities and reduced taxes.[1] The hunting of gray wolves, while originally actively endorsed in many countries, has become a controversial issue across the globe. Most people see it as cruel, unnecessary and based on misconceptions, while proponents argue that it is vital for the conservation of game herds and as pest control.[3]
History
Europe and Russia
In the sixth century BC, the first wolf bounty was reportedly opened when Solon of Athens offered five silver drachmas to any hunter for killing any male wolf, and one for every female.[2][4]
In Ancient Rome, the treatment given to wolves differed from the treatment meted out to other large predators. The Romans generally seem to have refrained from intentionally harming wolves. For instance, they were not hunted for pleasure (but only in order to protect herds that were out at pasture), and not displayed in the venationes, either. The special status of the wolf was not based on national ideology, but rather was connected to the religious importance of the wolf to the Romans.[5]
British isles
In
It is known that wolves survived in
Ireland throughout most of the first half of the 17th century had a substantial wolf population of not less than 400 and may be as high as 1000 wolves at any one time. Although the Irish hunted wolves, it is evident from documentary data that they did not see the same need as the English to exterminate the wolves. Although wolves were perceived as threats, they were nonetheless seen as natural parts of the Irish landscapes. The level of rewards and bounties established by Oliver Cromwell's regime after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (1649–1653) attracted a few professional wolf hunters to Ireland, mostly from England. Politically, the prospect of numbers of armed Irish roaming around the country hunting wolves was not acceptable, given the ongoing conflict between the Irish and the new English settlers, so it was seen as much safer for the English authorities to encourage men from their own country to deal with the wolf problem. Wolves were exterminated from Ireland in the late 18th century, most likely 1786.[11]
Western and central Europe
In 9th century France,
Wolf bounties were regularly paid in Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries and as recently as the 1950s.[2] Gian Galeazzo Visconti himself offered ten Imperial marks for every wolf killed.[14] 600 wolves are recorded to have been bountied between the 14th and 19th centuries. Presentation of the killed wolf to the authorities was obligatory. The authorities had to give an accurate testimony with a description of the presented animal (gender, weight, measurements, color, estimated age, etc.) and the symptomatic ascertainment of any rabies infection. The wolf's paw was then amputated and/or its ears were sealed in wax in order to avoid the spoils being represented elsewhere. Only one case of fraud occurred, in 1834, which was punished by arrest.[15] Italian wolf hunters lacked the organisation or determination of their French counterparts, having not formed any special hunting teams. Wolves were exterminated from the Alps in the 19th century, though they were never fully exterminated in the peninsula.[2]
In Switzerland, conflicts between humans and wolves reached a peak in the 16th century, amid large-scale deforestation. Wolves became extinct in Zürich in 1684. They were later exterminated from Appenzell Ausserrhoden in 1695, and Schaffhausen in 1712. The last known traces of wolves in central Switzerland date back to 1707 in Zug, 1753 in Uri, and 1793 in Glarus. Wolves became extinct in Engadin in 1821. Between 1762 and 1842, 80 wolves were recorded to have been bountied in Vaud. Wolves were further exterminated in Valais in 1870, Ticino in 1872 and Solothurn in 1874. Wolves occasionally migrated to Switzerland in small numbers in the early 20th century. In 1908, a wolf was shot in Ticino, and a further two were killed in 1914 in Lignerolle.[16]
In 19th century Spain, the
In an 1856 brochure, the Hungarian nationalist exile
In Croatia, between 1986 and 2004, 115 wolf deaths were recorded, of which 54% were due to shooting. During that period, the number of dead wolves found ranged from 0 to 15 annually. The lowest kill rates occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s, coinciding with the start of the Croatian War of Independence.[19]
Northern and eastern Europe
The Swedish kings
Norway followed a similar pattern as Sweden, with its last wolf being killed in 1976, before becoming being protected and eventually recolonizing the area.[2]
In the
In
In
After the
Asia
In India,
Before the onset of the
In the Mongolian People's Republic, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party organized two national wolf hunting weeks, one in March and another in December. Anyone who killed a wolf and presented a pair of ears as proof was rewarded with a sheep and some felt. Each May, the government commanded the populace to scour the countryside for wolf lairs in an effort to exterminate wolf pups. When the inhabitants of a district believed it had destroyed its last wolf, the local government would proclaim a public holiday. Records show that up to 5,000 wolves were taken annually in the early 1930s.[32] 4,000–4,500 wolves were killed annually in Mongolia in 1976.[23]
In the
North America
In the majority of Native American
After the
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, wolf hunting could become a cultural event as large numbers of people advanced through wolf territory in hopes of flushing any animals from hiding. In these types of hunts, firearms and dogs were forbidden, and the wolves were killed with clubs or otherwise by hand.[39]
Between 1916 and 1926 the National Park Service predator control program resulted in the extermination of sustainable packs of wolves in Yellowstone National Park by 1926.[40] American wolf hunts peaked in the 1920s-1930s, when up to 21,000 were killed annually.[2] After World War II, wolves were seen less as vermin and more as big game trophy animals.[34]
In 1978 the Endangered Species Act (ESA) labeled gray wolves as an endangered species in the contiguous United States, except for in Minnesota, and federally protected gray wolves from hunting.[41] In response to recovery progress of wolf populations under the act, the Fish and Wildlife Service proposed in 2013 to delist gray wolves from ESA,[42] though the proposal failed as it was not supported by adequate science.[43] In instances of delisting, federal protection is removed and states are left to manage their own wolf populations. Some states with residing wolf populations have notably few regulations on wolf hunting, as in Idaho where there is no bag limit for gray wolves, and hunting is allowed throughout the year.[44]
In ranges of the United States where there are concentrated populations of wolves, the Fish and Wildlife service can divide wolves into Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) which allow protections to vary depending on the recovery status of each wolf population.[41] In the 2000s, proposed DPSs designations for the gray wolf were coupled with delisting or down-listing actions, which removed federal protections against wolf hunting. District courts dismissed these proposals on the account that it went against the purpose of the ESA.[45] The only remaining DPS is the Northern Rocky Mountain DPS, which includes a range shared between 6 states.[46] The wolf population within this range is not listed as endangered and is not protected from hunting.
The first
Unlike European wolf hunts which were usually reserved for the nobility, North American wolf hunts were partaken by ordinary citizens, nearly all of them possessing firearms, thus the extermination of wolves in the lower 48 states was carried out in far less time than in Europe.[49]
By the 1960s the population of wolves decreased dramatically because people in North America have hunted wolves for a variety of purposes. For example, wolf hunting allowed people to acquire fur, which was further used in a variety of practical ways. It also allowed people to gain control over the spread of diseases transmitted by the animals and enabled people to better protect their livestock.[50] The circumstances finally started to change in the 1960s, as people finally start to realise that the wolf population had reached a crucially low point and had to be saved and put under the legal protection of the government. Environmental movement was transforming the public views on the issue and that was the starting point of the wolf population recovery.[51] United States federal government took the issue under its control and enacted the Endangered Species Act of 1973 to help protect and restore the wolf population. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 restricted the killing of wolves and labeled them as endangered animals in 48 contiguous states.[51] The grey wolf (Canis lupus) was one of the main subspecies to be classified as endangered, along with others such as the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf, Eastern Timber wolf, as well as Red wolf and Mexican wolf.[52] Since the wolf recovery journey began, under the protection of the law, wolf population numbers went up throughout the northern United States.[52] For example, Minnesota's recovery efforts positively influenced the wolf population and resulted in an increase their numbers from 200 to 350 between 1974 and 1990.[51]
Current situation
Europe and Russia
In Norway, in 2001, the government authorized a controversial wolf cull on the grounds that the animals were overpopulating and were responsible for the killing of more than 600 sheep in 2000. The Norwegian authorities' original plans to kill 20 wolves were scaled down amid public outcry.[53] However, sheep farmers generally welcome wolf hunting, as the wolves are a great threat to sheep and dogs. In 2005, the Norwegian government proposed another cull, with the intent of exterminating 25% of Norway's wolf population.
As of 2015, there were an estimated 460 wolves in the Scandinavian population, with the large majority located in Sweden.[54] Wolf hunting is controversial in Sweden, where decisions by public authorities to authorize hunting seasons each year since 2010 have resulted in legal challenges by the European Commission and by NGOs.
In Spain, wolves were hunted north of the Duero river under strict conditions to control damage over livestock, but strictly protected at the South margin. The recent Wolf expansion even to the mountains of Madrid, has generated a great controversy in Autonomous Community of Castile-León over whether to allow hunting also south of the Duero river. As of 2021 the wolf hunt has been banned in all of Spain.[55]
The European Union has exceptionally permitted Estonia, which has the highest wolf density in the EU, to continue wolf hunting as long as the overall numbers remain stable. In 2010, 173 wolves were permitted to be culled, but only 130 were actually caught.[56] In 2011, 149 wolves were culled of the permitted 150.[57]
Under the
Though wolf populations have increased in Ukraine, wolves remain unprotected there and can be hunted year-round by permit-holders.[33]
Bulgaria considers the wolf a pest animal and there is a bounty equivalent to two weeks average wages on their heads.[59]
With the exception of specimens in nature reserves, wolves in Belarus are largely unprotected. They are designated a game species, and bounties ranging between 60 and 70 Euros are paid to hunters for each wolf killed. This is a considerable sum in a country where the average monthly wage is 230 Euros.[60]
In Russia, government-backed wolf exterminations have been largely discontinued since the fall of the Soviet Union. As a result, their numbers have stabilized and are increasing, though they are still hunted legally.[2] According to Alexander Tikhonov, head of the Department of Hunting Resources "the more wolves you have, the more problems there are". His department currently licenses a national bag limit of up to 14,000 wolves annually, with permits given to hunt even within nature reserves.[25] Currently, Russia is the only nation where poison is legally used to kill wolves. The government licensed a fluorine-acetate-barium compound and distributed it through hunting associations.[25]
Asia
Since the fall of the Soviet Union, wolf hunting in Kazakhstan has decreased in profit. About 2,000 are killed yearly for a $40 bounty, though the animal's numbers have risen sharply.[33]
Wolf hunting has become a fashionable pastime for Mongolia's new capitalist rich, particularly around Ulaanbaatar. It is currently illegal to shoot animals from helicopters or jeeps, though many rich hunters do not pay attention to this, including the lawmakers. For Mongolian nomads, hunting wolves is more than a rich man's hobby because of evocations to the wolf's role in their mythology. Most post-Soviet Mongols have reverted to the traditional belief that to kill a wolf in January, or even to see one, brings good fortune for the whole year.[32]
In 2006, the government of the
North America
In
Many scientists believe that this artificial inflation of game populations is actually detrimental to both caribou and moose populations as well as the ecosystem as a whole; artificially boosted populations "could result in habitat destruction by moose and caribou, and ultimately, a crash in these populations".[67] This is why large numbers of people support the Protect America's Wildlife (PAW) Act which was proposed to Congress by George Miller, the state representative of California in July 2009. This legislation has already received official support from nine former members of the Alaska Board of Game and Wildlife and conservation groups, including Defenders of Wildlife. According to Miller, "The state of Alaska has been operating an airborne hunting program that has blatantly ignored federal law, ignored Alaskans' opposition, ignored the science, and ignored even their own wildlife experts. It's time to ground this air assault on wolves. The PAW Act is urgently needed to close the loophole in federal law and protect our nation's wildlife from the unethical and unsportsmanlike practice of airborne hunting."[68] The PAW Act has been created to close the loophole in the existing Airborne Hunting Act that has allowed Alaska legislators and officials to continue to aerial hunt. The bill would clarify under which conditions it is acceptable to use aircraft to aid in the management of wildlife. It would bar states from using aerial hunting to artificially boost game species when they are not at risk and to clarify the prohibition of harassing animals from planes which is part of the "land and shoot" hunting that is being utilized in Alaska. The PAW Act acknowledges the right of states to manage wildlife by clearly stating that wildlife agencies may use planes to respond to legitimate biological emergencies in wildlife populations. It also states that aircraft may be used for animal control where land, livestock, water, pets, crops, or human health are at risk.[67]
An estimated 15% of Canada and Alaska's wolf population of 6,000-7,000 is eliminated annually. (Canada's total wolf population is about 30,000.) Ontario ceased its wolf bounty system in 1972, though retaining a year-round open season for wolves.[2] In Alberta, wolves bounties are still offered by some local governments. Starting in 2010, Big Lakes County offered a bounty of C$300 per adult wolf, leading to 290 wolves worth $87,000 by mid-2012.[69]
After the gray wolf was removed from the endangered species list for the western great lakes region in January 2012, the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources instituted a hunting season to manage the population.[70] This new season ran from November 3, 2012, through the 18th, 2012 in some regions and continued November 24, 2012 and ran through January 31, 2013 or until the tag limit was reached.[71] That limit was set at a target of 400 wolves across the state.[72] The total number of wolves killed in this inaugural season was 412 wolves. Twelve more wolves were killed past the target number.[72][73]
On December 19, 2014, a US Federal Court ordered a stop to the hunting of wolves in Minnesota, Wisconsin and in Michigan.[74]
In the United States hunting wolves became legal again once Trump's administration issued the policy which took away Endangered Species Act protections for endangered gray wolves.[75] States then resumed the fight against gray wolves as the federal government was no longer protecting wolves. Making the hunting of wolves legal destroyed packs of wolves, and niches.[76] Hunting wolves can have destructive impacts on their population as it can break up packs. Smaller packs of wolves have a harder time finding food to survive as they cannot carry bigger prey.[77] One pack member hunted has a tremendous impact on the pact. A research paper published in the Journal of Animal Ecology in 2014, confirmed the impact of the loss of one wolf. Findings included that where a pack broke apart, dissolution followed by a loss of an alpha.[78] The grey wolf pack and population is highly susceptive to the fate of breeders.
The current situation in the western United States allows for the hunting and trapping of wolves during designated seasons.[79] As of 2022 in Montana, hunters can hunt up to 10 wolves and trap up to 10 wolves for a combined total of up to 20 wolves.[80] The majority of wolves hunted in Montana were originally re-introduced in the protected Yellowstone National Park but are not safe from hunting once the wolves exit the park's land. It has been reported that some wolves have been hunted merely 10 miles from the park's border with one in 2020 wearing a scientific radio collar.[81] As of January 9, 2022 more Yellowstone wolves which have wandered outside of the Park have been hunted and killed than any season since their species reintroduction in 1995.
A federal judge later restored protections for gray wolves in much of the United States. This action essentially reversed Trump's Policy where he eliminated all protections for endangered gray wolves. With protection, gray wolves are better off than they were previously. However, this restoration did not restore protections for wolves in the northern Rockies.[76] This is where their population is being aggressively hunted which is prevalently shown through the number of wolves still being killed. February 10, 2022, was when a court order for gray wolves was issued in the contiguous 48 states and Mexico to protect the gray wolves under the Endangered Species Act (ESA).[82] The gray wolves were able to protected again Senior District Judge Jeffrey S. White, of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California declared removing protection did not consider threats outside of the Great Lakes and Northern Rocky Mountains.[83]
With regards to Wolf hunting in other Western States, the laws vary drastically. In Oregon although the gray wolf, Canis lupus,[84] was controversially removed from the state's endangered species list, the killing of wolves remains strictly illegal. This includes a ban on all trapping and hunting of the species in any part of the state for any reason.[85] Contrary to Oregon's strict laws, the state's neighbor to the east, Idaho, has very different laws. In Idaho, the trapping of wolves on private property is legal year round.[86] In addition to trapping, there is no limit to the number of tags wolf hunters can possess, therefore making the hunting of wolves legal year round in the state of Idaho.[87] As a result of the change in legislation, the killing of wolves is incredibly similar to that of coyotes and foxes in the state currently.
Quarry
The
Pelts
Wolves are commonly hunted for their fur. The color of a wolf's fur can vary, from the pure white of the largest, Alaskan wolves, through the range of reddish brown. Even the so-called "grey wolves" can include pure black pups in a litter, although grey is the most common color. Wolves have two kinds of hairs; an outer coat of long, stiff hairs called "
While not in the same class as high grade
Ritual and traditional medicine
In
Meat
It is rare for wolves to be hunted for food, though historically, people have resorted to consuming wolf flesh in times of scarcity, or for medicinal reasons.
Most Native American tribes, especially the
In an 1868 issue of The Sant Paul's Magazine, Anthony Trollope gave an account on the palatability of wolf flesh, and how it was sometimes used as the subject of practical jokes among French hunters.
The flesh of the wolf may be taken certainly to be about the rankest carrion in creation, not even excepting that of the common vulture and the turkey-buzzard. Yet all this in reality is less fact than imagination. M. Charles Gauthey, a well-known sportsman in the Cote-d'Or, relates that the landlord of a country inn, himself a sportsman, and wishing to play the brethren a confraternal trick—or as it is called in French, leur jouer un tour de chasseur,—had a piece of wolf's flesh cut into small square morsels, and stewed up with veal and mutton cut into pieces of a different shape. The landlord helped the ragout himself, and being careful to serve each guest with one of the square morsels, was enabled to inform them after dinner that they had all been eating wolf. Two of the guests were thereupon seized with horror, and one to such a degree that he was compelled to retire from the table with precipitation. The others took the joke in good part, and one and all declared they had detected nothing in the dish to excite suspicion in the least degree.
— The Saint Pauls Magazine, by Anthony Trollope. Published by Virtue and Co., 1868
Wolf meat was eaten several times during
Terminology
Wolf hunting historically gave rise to a vast vocabulary:
- Berkut: A tame golden eagle used to hunt wolves in Central Asia.
- Grand vieux loup: An old, solitary male wolf.[119]
- Loup Chevalier: A wolf which regularly attacks horses.[119]
- Loup lévrier: A wolf exceptionally fast in the chase.[119]
- Loup Moutonnier: A wolf which regularly attacks sheep.[119]
- Louve: A female wolf.[119]
- La Louveterie: Wolf hunting.[119]
- Louvetier royal Modern day offshoot of the luparii. Now serves an administrative function regulating vermin and maintaining healthy wildlife populations.[13]
- Lovière: A wolf den.[119]
- Luparii: An elite corps of crown funded officials whose purpose was to control wolf populations in France during the Middle Ages.[13]
- Lycisca: A wolf-dog hybrid.[119]
- Outlaw wolf: A wolf which regularly killed livestock in America.
- Wolfer: Both professional and civilian wolf hunters who operated in North America in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[34]
- Wolfhound: A dog bred or trained to hunt wolves.
Methods
Aerial shooting
Aerial shooting involves the tracking of wolves via a small airplane or helicopter and is considered by many to be the most effective method of wolf control. It was frequently used in the Soviet Union during its wolf control campaigns, starting in 1946 when the Chief Directorate of Aviation received reports that pilots flying at low altitudes frequently saw wolves. Polikarpov Po-2s and Antonov An-2s were the most frequently used models. The normal protocol was for the pilot to search frontally, and the shooter sideways. 70%-80% of wolves were first sighted by the pilot. Rocket guns would be fired into dense brush in order to scare wolves out into the open. Markers were thrown at the site of each kill for later collection. Actual shooting was done from the rear cockpit or left side when at a distance of 18–20 metres from the quarry. An experienced shooter could spot a standing wolf a kilometre away at heights of up to 100–140 metres. Most wolves were killed when the planes flew at speeds of 70 to 85 km/h. The load limit of a Po-2 was 2 men and 5 adult wolves; the rear cockpit could hold 4 wolves, while the shooter's cockpit could hold 2, or carcasses could be tied to the fuselage or wings of the plane.[23] Aerial hunting has been discontinued in the former Soviet Union because of budget restraints.[2] Wolf hunting is still practiced this way in the U.S. state of Alaska.[120] "Congress passed the Federal Airborne Hunting Act of 1972,[121] which made it illegal for hunters to shoot animals from a plane or helicopter. The federal legislation does have a provision for predator control, permitting state employees or licensed individuals to shoot from an aircraft for the sake of protecting "land, water, wildlife, livestock, domesticated animals, human life, or crops".[122]
Blind
The use of heated box blinds is a popular method of wolf hunting in modern Alberta. Bait stations are set in advance of the hunt, with blinds being erected in the more frequented spots. The method was developed as a response to the fact that finding wolves on foot was almost always a pure luck scenario, because of the wolf's elusiveness. Shots are usually fired when the wolf is 200 yards (180 m) from the blind.[123]
Calling
Calling is a traditional wolf hunting method of Mongolia. The hunters go to the place where the pack is located early in the morning and will imitate a wolf's howl. The hunters howl in unison with the wolves and wait for the animals to come to them. Mongolian wolf hunting is usually done with the assistance of local herders.[124]
Fladry
In modern European Russia, a traditional wolf hunting method involves encircling the located wolf pack with a 3–5 kilometers (1.9–3.1 miles) fladry, a long rope with small swatches of fabric stitched to it every few feet. The fabric is usually red in order to be easier spotted over the background of snow by the guides. Since it retains a human scent for several days, wolves tend to stay within the encircled area. When the hunters arrive, the pack of wolves is already "flagged".[125]
Hunting with dogs
Several dog breeds known as wolfhounds have been bred for the purpose of hunting wolves, though conventional hunting breeds have also been used.
Hunting with eagles
The use of raptors in the hunting of wolves is primarily practised in Central Asia. The Kyrgyz people have traditionally used golden eagles, known as berkut, to hunt wolves. In the past, wolf pelts provided material for clothes crucial for the survival of the nomadic people in the severe colds. The eagles are used to immobilize the wolves by placing one foot at the back of the neck and another at the flank closer to the heart and lungs. Hunters usually only use eagles against pups, as an adult wolf can cripple in combat even a highly experienced eagle. Losing even one toe or talon will significantly lower the eagle's ability to tackle prey. Only a minor injury to the sinew of a foot may leave the eagle incapable of further hunting. As a wolf is capable of resisting even the best-trained bird, the falconer always keeps near, ready at the first opportunity to help the eagle. This is done carefully, as the wolf, sensing human presence, fights desperately to tear loose from the bird's talons, and the eagle can be severely injured. Because of the violent nature of their work, eagles trained to hunt wolves have shorter life spans.[126]
Luring
In 19th century Russia and Scandinavia, pigs were used as decoys and were transported in strong canvas sacks on horse-drawn sleighs. The pigs, kept in the canvas bags, were made to squeal in order to attract the wolves. Hunters would wait at a distance to shoot the wolves when they came out after the pig. Once the wolves arrived, the hunters would either shoot them or retrieve the pig and canvas bag. In the latter case, they took off down the road, luring the wolves behind. The wolves would be led to a palisade, where they would be trapped and shot.[127][128]
Poisoning
Historically, poisoning was very successful in reducing wolf populations, particularly in the American West and
Strychnine is a poisonous ingredient included in a variety of pesticides and is used as a grain baits most of the time. The strychnine was used to kill wolves and became one of the most effective methods for protecting livestock and also eradicating pests that threaten the environment.[130] Pesticides containing strychnine are lethal to everything that consumes them.[131] But since this sort of poison caused pain and brutal death for the animals who swallowed it strychnine baits, capable of killing wolves, were banned in 1972 by the US government and in 2006 by the European Union.[130] Back in 2019, a Montana resident illegally used strychnine bait by placing the poison into cow meat in order to poison a wolf. The consequence of this unlawful behavior, according to U.S. Magistrate Judge Kathleen L. DeSoto, was the death of not just a wolf, but also resulted in additional collateral deaths of a pet dog and other small animals. The individual was fined $500 and ordered to pay $1,000 in restitution to the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks.[132]
Skidor
In
Traps
Knife and hook traps
The Native Americans used two kinds of knife traps. One method was to encase a sharp blade in fat and frozen upright on a block of ice. The wolf would cut itself while licking the blade and bleed to death. Some argue that this method is a myth.[134] The other method was a baited torsion spring which when triggered, would stab the wolf in the head.[34]
In medieval Germany and eastern France, an iron Wolfsangel ("wolf hook") was used to bait the wolf in the manner of catching a fish.[135]
Trapping pit
Across the top of the trapping pit was a thick stick or pole, and on this was fastened a plank, which covered the top of the trap. On one end of this plank was a piece of venison, and on the other a stone. The way the trap was meant to work was this: The wolf would come to the venison, and just as it got on the plank to eat it, the plank would turn, causing the wolf to fall into the pit. The weight of the stone at the other end would bring the plank up again, ready baited for another wolf.[136]
Steel wolf trap
Steel wolf traps, used frequently in the American west, were made from heavy steel, were six and a half inches wide, and had two springs, each with 100 lbs of power. Steel wolf traps were usually the same models used in the capture of beavers, lynx and wolverine. In order to hide the human scent, trappers would handle their equipment with gloves, and cover the traps in beeswax or blood. As the wolf's power of scent is so great, a mere touch of human skin on the trap will result in the wolf vacating the area. Wolves may also dig up or spring the traps. The traps would typically be set in fours around a bait and strongly fastened to concealed logs, and covered in moss, chaff, cotton or sand for camouflage. Sometimes, the trap and the bait would be placed in a pool of water, thus leaving no other point of access for the wolf to take.[129][137]
Reactions
Livestock and crop damage
Opponents have argued that at least in North America, wolves contribute little to overall livestock losses. In 2005 0.11% of all cattle losses were due to wolves. In states with wolf populations, they were responsible for an average of 2.5% of predation on sheep.[138] Jim Dutcher, a filmmaker who raised a captive wolf pack, observed that the wolves were very reluctant to try meat that they had not previously eaten or seen another wolf eat before, possibly explaining why livestock depredation is unlikely except in cases of desperation.[139] In Wyoming, Idaho and Montana, wolf predation accounts for 1% of total sheep deaths.[140]
Wolf hunting proponents have drawn attention to the fact that wolves will on occasion commit acts of surplus killing when within the confines of human-made livestock shelters. Rare incidents of surplus killing by wolves in Minnesota are reported to leave up to 35 sheep killed and injured in flocks and losses of 50 to 200 birds in turkey flocks.[citation needed] In spite of the low percentage of attacks on livestock in Minnesota, farms in wolf territories and environments may become more susceptible to depredation under certain conditions. These conditions include larger farm size, increased numbers of cattle, an increased distance from human management, and improper disposal of livestock carcasses.[141] While loss of livestock by wolves makes up only a small percentage of total losses in North America,[142] surveys in Eurasia show some instances where wolf predation was frequent. In some areas of the former Soviet Union, wolves cause serious damage to watermelon plantations. Wolves will usually only take ripe melons after giving test bites, which can render even unripe fruits worthless for future consumption. Sometimes, up to 20% of the total watermelon crop can be destroyed on one raid.[23]
Wolves and game herds
Wolf hunting opponents have argued that wolves serve vital functions in areas where they are sympatric with game herds. By culling unhealthy animals, wolves keep game herds healthy. Opponents state that without wolves, prey populations swell unnaturally, unbalancing ecosystems whilst simultaneously sapping wildlife management resources.
Proponents for wolf hunting often point out the apparently adverse effects large wolf populations have on game herds. An example occurred in 2008, in which the
Wolves and the spread of disease
Some hunt proponents argue that large numbers of wolves are central to the spread of numerous infectious diseases because of their nomadic nature. Diseases recorded to be carried by wolves include
Attacks on humans
The absence of a global review, and the language barrier having partially hindered the flow of international information has led some international groups to level criticism at some wolf advocates, claiming that they have extrapolated America's general lack of negative experiences with wolves to the rest of the world, whilst ignoring the differing histories and cultures which lead to diverse interactions with the animals.[146] Hunting proponents argue that wolves with no negative experiences of humans are more likely to encroach upon human settlements and attack people, citing for example the differences in attitudes toward the public distribution of firearms in America and Eurasia as examples as to why nations on both continents have differing accounts of wolf aggression.[23] Hunting wolves is reasoned to maintain shyness in wolves,[146] an idea which is correlated by a modern account demonstrating that wolves in protected areas are more likely to show no fear toward humans than ones in areas where they are actively hunted.[2] Historical and recent accounts indicate that habituated or "fearless" individual wolves or wolf packs must be met with measures to dissociate wolves' association between and dependence on humans for food to mitigate risk for attack.[146]
Notable wolf hunters
- Antoine de Beauterne
- Jean Chastel
- MacQueen of Pall à Chrocain
- Mary, Queen of Scots[6]
- Jack O'Connor[34]
- Theodore Roosevelt[89]
- Ernest Thompson Seton
- Ivan IV Vasilyevich[147]
Gallery
-
Wolf hunt depicted in a 14th-century bestiary
-
Wolf hunt with hounds, 15th-century engraving (wolf in upper right)
-
15th-century paper instructing on how to trap wolves with snares
-
Drawing of a wolf hunt from Neuw Jag vnnd Weyderwerck Buch, Frankfurt am Main 1582
-
A 16th-century print after Stradanus depicting a wolf hunt
-
The Wolf of Ansbach, chased into a well and displayed on a gibbet
-
Wolf and Fox Hunt by Peter Paul Rubens
-
Wolf hunt by Jean-Baptiste Oudry
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The Wolf Hunt, Alexandre-François Desportes
-
A 19th-century painting depicting the conclusion of a wolf hunt
-
Fireplace decoration depicting a wolf hunt in the castle of Pibrac (France).
See also
- Animal welfare
- Beast of Gévaudan, a famous episode of wolf-hunting
- Hunting license
- Jackal coursing
- Three Toes of Harding County famous wolf hunted in South Dakota
- Wolf attacks on humans, some of which have spurred hunts
- Wolf-baiting
- Wolf hunting with dogs
References
- ^ a b c "Statement by Valerius Geist pertaining to the death of Kenton Carnegie" (PDF). Wolf Crossing. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-09.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Mech & Boitani 2003, p. 448
- ^ a b "Game board says yes to aerial shooting of wolves" (PDF). alaskawolves.org. 2000. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
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