Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology
The
Wolves have sometimes been associated with
Akkadian
One of the earliest written references to black wolves occurs in the
Caucasian
The names of the nation of Georgia derives from Old Persian designation of the Georgians vrkān (𐎺𐎼𐎣𐎠𐎴) meaning "the land of the wolves", that would eventually transform into gorğān, term that will be finding its way into most European languages as "Georgia".[4]
The wolf is a national symbol of Chechnya.[5] According to folklore, the Chechens are "born of a she-wolf", as included in the central line in the national myth.[5] The "lone wolf" symbolizes strength, independence and freedom.[5] A proverb about the teips (clans) is "equal and free like wolves".[6]
Indo-European
In
Baltic
According to legend, the establishment of the
Dacian
In his book From Zalmoxis to Genghis Khan, Mircea Eliade attempted to give a mythological foundation to an alleged special relation between Dacians and the wolves:[8]
- Dacians might have called themselves "wolves" or "ones the same with wolves",[9][8] suggesting religious significance.[10]
- Dacians draw their name from a god or a legendary ancestor who appeared as a wolf.[10]
- Dacians had taken their name from a group of fugitive immigrants arrived from other regions or from their own young outlaws, who acted similarly to the wolves circling villages and living from looting. As was the case in other societies, those young members of the community went through an initiation, perhaps up to a year, during which they lived as a "wolf".[11][10] Comparatively, Hittite laws referred to fugitive outlaws as "wolves".[12]
- The existence of a ritual that provides one with the ability to turn into a wolf.
Germanic
Wolves were seen as both being negative and positive to the Norse people. On one hand, they represent the untameable forces of nature (e.g. Fenrir, Skoll, and Hati), while on the other hand, they can also represent bravery, loyalty, protection, and wisdom.
In the
But wolves also served as mounts for more or less dangerous humanoid creatures. For instance,
Wolf or Wulf is used as a surname, given name, and a name among Germanic-speaking peoples. "Wolf" is also a component in other Germanic names:
Greek
The
Mount Lykaion (Λύκαιον ὄρος) is a mountain in Arcadia where an altar of Zeus was located. Zeus Lykaios was said to have been born and brought up on it, and was the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon, who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practiced on its summit. This seems to have involved a human sacrifice, and a feast in which the man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The sanctuary of Zeus played host to athletic games held every four years, the Lykaia.
According to
Indic
In the
Iranic
According to Zoroastrian legends, Zoroaster as a child was carried by the devs (the gods) to the lair of the she-wolf, in expectation that the savage beast would kill it; but she accepted it among her own cubs, and Vahman brought an ewe to the den which suckled it. (It was impossible in the Zoroastrian legend for the wolf herself to give milk to the infant, since wolves are regarded as daevic creatures.) [24] According to the
Wusuns, an Indo-European[26] semi-nomadic steppe people of Iranian origin,[27] had a legend that after their king Nandoumi was killed by Yuezhi, another Indo-European people, Nandoumi's infant son Liejiaomi was left in the wild and He was miraculously saved from hunger being suckled by a she-wolf, and fed meat by ravens.[28][29][30][31]
Roman
In
In Antiquity, the she-wolf was identified as a symbol of Rome by both the Romans themselves and nations under the Roman rule. The Lupa Romana was an iconic scene that represented in the first place the idea of romanitas, being Roman. When it was used in the
The treatment given to wolves differed from the treatment meted out to other large predators. The Romans generally seem to have refrained from intentionally harming wolves. For instance, they were not hunted for pleasure (but only in order to protect herds that were out at pasture), and not displayed in the venationes, either. The special status of the wolf was not based on national ideology, but rather was connected to the religious importance of the wolf to the Romans.[33]
The comedian Plautus used the image of wolves to ponder the cruelty of man as a wolf unto man.
"Lupus" (Wolf) was used as a Latin first name and as a Roman cognomen.
Slavic
The
The wolf as a mythological creature is greatly linked to Balkan and
Japanese
Raijū ("thunder beast") is a god from the Shinto religion. It is attributed with causing thunder, along with Raijin, who causes lightning. While Raijū is generally calm and harmless, during thunderstorms it becomes agitated, and leaps about in trees, fields, and even buildings.
In another Japanese myth, Grain farmers once worshiped wolves at shrines and left food offerings near their dens, beseeching them to protect their crops from wild boars and deer.[39] Talismans and charms adorned with images of wolves were thought to protect against fire, disease, and other calamities and brought fertility to agrarian communities and to couples hoping to have children. The Ainu people believed that they were born from the union of a wolf like creature and a goddess.[40]
Turkic
In the
Mongolian
In the
Arctic and North America
In most Native American cultures, wolves are considered a medicine being associated with courage, strength, loyalty, and success at hunting.[48]
Arctic and Canada
Wolves were generally revered by
United States
Wolves are important figures in a number of Native American cultures, with the wolf's dedication to its pack, in particular, inspiring many of the beliefs and symbolism associated with them.[51]
The Tsitsista (Cheyenne), Lakota, Dakota, Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot), Assiniboine, Arikara, Arapaho, Osage, Shoshone, and Pawnee all tell stories of wolves as role models who taught people how to hunt. Many of the stories involve mutual support between people and wolves. Several of these tribes have warrior groups named after wolves. The Tsitsista call wolves the masters of the grasslands and protectors of all animals; hunters would call wolves to share their kill in the same manner that a wolf calls upon the raven, fox, and coyote to share. The Siksikaitsitapi consider wolves to be friends with humans, and believe against shooting them.[52] In Pawnee spiritual stories, the wolf was the first creature to experience death.[53]
The Lenape have three major clans, one of which is the Wolf clan; the other two are the Turtle and Turkey.[54]
Mexican wolves and related subspecies are important to many tribes in the Southwestern United States, including the Apache,Akimel O'odham/Pima, Diné/Navajo, Hopi, and Havasupai. Several of these tribes have traditional stories, names and rituals associated with wolves.[55][56] Further information: Mexican wolf § History
Mexico
Mexican wolves were importantly symbolic in Teotihuacan and other Pre-Columbian Mexican cultures. They were considered representative of the Sun, war, and the god Xolotl.[57]
Abrahamic traditions
Judaism
In the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), the wolf symbolizes the Israelite Tribe of Benjamin. This symbol originates from Genesis 49:27, when the patriarch Jacob blesses his youngest son: "Benjamin is a ravenous wolf; In the morning he consumes the foe, And in the evening he divides the spoil.” This symbolism has been interpreted by scholars to reference such attributes as the tribe's fearless and often warlike nature (Judges 21), and to refer to some notable victorious members of the Tribe, such as King Saul and Mordecai.[58][59] The Temple in Jerusalem was traditionally said to be partly in the territory of the Tribe of Benjamin (but mostly in that of Judah), and some traditional interpretations of the Blessing consider the ravenous wolf to refer to the Temple's altar which devoured biblical sacrifices.[60][61] The wolf has appeared as a literary and illustrated symbol for the Tribe of Benjamin across Jewish, Samaritan, and Christian artwork - including in places of worship, bibles, and prayer books - for centuries.[62]
In the Book of Yeshayahu (Isaiah) (11:6), the prophet predicts that in the utopian Messianic Age, "The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, The leopard lie down with the kid; The calf, the beast of prey, and the fatling together, With a little boy to herd them."[63]
Wolves in the Tanakh and other Jewish literature are often portrayed as predators of livestock, other wildlife, and occasionally, humans.[64] The prophet Jeremiah (5:6) warns that "The wolf of the desert ravages them" as a divine punishment against transgressors. Rashi interprets this wolf as a representation of the antagonistic Kingdom of Media.[65]
Medieval Jewish folklorist Berechiah ha-Nakdan wrote about wolves extensively as characters in his Mishlè Shu'alim (Fox Fables).[66] Late Victorian Anglo-Jewish stories, such as those by Israel Zangwill and Samuel Gordon, sympathetically liken the close-knit, dispersed, and persecuted Jewish community to Europe's wolves; loyal, family-oriented animals that had been killed and stereotyped unjustly due to prejudice from a Christian-majority Europe. The authors specifically focus on Jewish brotherhood in comparison to wolves' pack dedication.[59]
The Hebrew and Yiddish words for wolf, Ze'ev (זְאֵב) and Velvel (װעלװעל), are historically common first names for Jews.[67][59]
Christianity
The Bible contains 13 references to wolves, usually as metaphors for greed and destructiveness. In the New Testament, Jesus is quoted to have used wolves as illustrations to the dangers His followers would have faced should they follow him (Matthew 10:16, Acts 20:29, Matthew 7:15)[68]
The Book of Genesis was interpreted in Medieval Europe as stating that nature exists solely to support man (Genesis 1:29), who must cultivate it (Genesis 2:15), and that animals are made for his own purposes (Genesis 2:18–20).
The wolf is repeatedly mentioned in the scriptures as an enemy of flocks: a metaphor for evil men with a lust for power and dishonest gain, as well as a metaphor for Satan preying on innocent God-fearing Christians, contrasted with the shepherd Jesus who keeps his flock safe.[
However, legends surrounding
In Canto I of
by a greyhound.Much of the symbolism
The hagiography of the 16th Century
Islam
Wolves are mentioned three times in the
12.13: "He said: Surely it grieves me that you should take him off, and I fear lest the wolf devour him while you are heedless of him."
12.14: "They said: Surely if the wolf should devour him notwithstanding that we are a (strong) company, we should then certainly be losers."
12.17: "They said: O our father! Surely we went off racing and left Yusuf by our goods, so the wolf devoured him, and you will not believe us though we are truthful."
Modern folklore, literature and pop culture
The popular image of the wolf is significantly influenced by the
- "The hungry Sheep look up, and are not fed / But swoln with wind, and the rank mist they draw / Rot inwardly and foul contagian spread: Besides what the grim Woolf with privy paw / Daily devours apace"
The wolf in the Scandinavian tradition as either representing the warrior or protector, sometimes combined with the Christian symbolism as the wolf representing evil or the devil, came to be a popular attribute in the heavy metal music subculture, used by bands such as Sonata Arctica, Marduk, Watain, Wintersun, and Wolf.
Wolves are a popular species of choice for an individual's "fursona" in the furry fandom.
Many recent animated films have portrayed wolves in a sympathetic light, such as Balto, Princess Mononoke, The Secret of Kells, and Wolfwalkers.[74] Princess Mononoke and Wolfwalkers both feature wolves in a spiritual guardian role as well as an ecological one, protecting their respective forests from human encroachment.[75][76] In Walt Disney's The Jungle Book (1967 and 2016), the resident wolf pack are portrayed as dedicated and protective parents to the protagonist, Mowgli.
See also
- Big Bad Wolf
- Little Red Riding Hood
- Throw to the wolves
- Werewolf
- Wolf of Gubbio
- Wolves in fiction
- Wolves in heraldry
- White Fang
- Foxes in popular culture
- African golden wolf § In literature and art
References
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- ^ a b c Mech & Boitani 2003, p. 292
- ^ Marvin 2012, pp. 46–47
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- ^ a b Eliade 1995, p. 11.
- ^ Eisler 1951, p. 137.
- ^ a b c d Eliade 1995, p. 13.
- ^ Jeanmaire 1975, p. 540.
- ^ a b Eisler 1951, p. 144.
- ^ a b c Eliade 1995, p. 15.
- ^ Zambotti 1954, p. 184, fig. 13–14, 16.
- ^ a b Eliade 1995, p. 23.
- ^ Eliade 1995, p. 27.
- ^ Eliade 1986.
- ^ Pliny the Elder. "viii". Historia Naturalis. p. 81. 22/34
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At his feet crouched two wolves or hunting hounds, Geri and Freki, animals therefore sacred to him, and of good omen if met by the way. Odin always fed these wolves with his own hands from meat set before him.
- ^ Suda, la.812
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- ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 6
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Вук као митска животиња дубо- ко је везан за балканску и српску митологију и култове. Заправо, то је животиња која је била распрострањена у јужнословенским крајевима и која је представљала сталну опасност како за стоку ...
- ^ Brankovo kolo za zabavu, pouku i književnost. 1910. p. 221.
Тако стоји и еа осталим атрибутима деспота Вука. По- зната је ствар, да и вук (животиња) има зпатну уло- I у у митологији
- ^ .
У старој српској ре- лигији и митологији вук је био табуирана и тотемска животиња.
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- ^ Walker 2005, pp. 83–84
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- ^ ISBN 0-7432-4936-4.
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- ^ "Ba'cho". Arizona Highways. Retrieved 2024-03-25.
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- ^ "Wolves | Texts & Source Sheets from Torah, Talmud and Sefaria's library of Jewish sources". www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 2023-02-24.
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- ^ Gorr, Rabbi Shmuel. "Popular Jewish (Hebrew) Boy Names". Chabad.org.
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- ^ a b Marvin 2012, pp. 43–45
- ^ Lopez 1978, p. 208
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- ^ Lopez 1978, pp. 205, 219 & 240
- ^ Markey, Greg, Father (14 February 2013). "Blessed Sebastián de Aparicio". Fairfield County Catholic. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ebert, Roger. "Balto movie review & film summary (1995) | Roger Ebert". www.rogerebert.com/. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
- ^ Ebert, Roger. "Princess Mononoke movie review (1999) | Roger Ebert". www.rogerebert.com/. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
- ^ Tallerico, Brian. "Wolfwalkers movie review & film summary (2020) | Roger Ebert". www.rogerebert.com/. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
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