Women as imams
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There is a difference of opinion among
A small number of schools of Islamic thought make exceptions for tarawih (optional Ramadan prayers) or for a congregation consisting only of close relatives. Women acting as leaders, teachers, and authorities in other capacities however is not deviating from the Islamic orthodoxy as women have never been restricted from becoming scholars, ulema, jurists, muftis, preachers, missionaries, or spiritual guides. There is a long history of female masters of Islamic sciences teaching men.
Historically, certain sects have considered it acceptable for women to function as imams. This was true not only in the Arab heartland of early Islam, but in China over recent centuries, where
Those who reply to these arguments typically mention that Islam has a long history of female scholarship and legal rulings and they claim that unlike other religions Islam never had a male dominated class of jurists. They also suggest that the arguments of those who support female leadership of congressional prayer often criticize the entire history of Islamic scholarship with sweeping accusations of patriarchy or sexism rather than pointing to jurisprudential methodologies or preexisting legal opinions, especially as preexisting rulings are the foundation of all judicial systems, and carry a lot of weight when jurists are considering new rulings.
Precedents
The
An indirectly relevant hadith is widely considered to be crucial, since the imam stands at the front of the congregation.
The hadith of
The use of the word dar in the hadith, when speaking of where the prayer was held, has resulted in different interpretations. A general translation is "area", constituting the community around where Umm Waraqa lived. This idea is not accepted by many scholars. Another translation of dar is "household", which would mean that Umm Waraqa led prayers in her home. Who was she leading? Imam Zaid presents three possibilities: the two servants of her household and the mu'ahdhin, or the women of her surrounding “area”, or only the women of her household. Each of these possibilities requires certain assumptions, but the most accepted is that Umm Waraqa was leading the women of her household, thus leading to the conclusion that women are allowed to lead prayers of all-female congregations. Zaid insists that if Muhammed established a mosque in the household of a man, which was not uncommon, Itban b. Malik, then he must also have set up women-only congregations.[5]
With regard to women leading congregations of women, however, several hadith report that
- The hadith of `A’ishah and Umm Salamah (may Allah be pleased with them). `Abdur-Raziq (5086), Ad-Daraqutni (1/404) and Al-Bayhaqi (3/131) reported from the narration of Abu Hazim Maysarah ibn Habib from Ra’itah Al-Hanafiyyah from `A’ishah that she led women in Prayer and stood among them in an obligatory Prayer. Moreover, Ibn Abi Shaybah (2/89) reported from the chain of narrators of Ibn Abi Layla from `Ata’ that `A’ishah used to say the Adhan, the Iqamah, and lead women in Prayer while standing among them in the same row. Al-Hakim also reported the same hadith from the chain of narrators of Layth Ibn Abi Sulaim from `Ata’, and the wording of the hadith mentioned here is Al-Hakim’s.
- Furthermore, Ash-Shafi`i (315), Ibn Abi Shaybah (88/2) and `Abdur-Raziq (5082) reported from two chains of narrators that report the narration of `Ammar Ad-Dahni in which he stated that a woman from his tribe named Hujayrah narrated that Umm Salamh used to lead women in Prayer while standing among them in the same row.
- The wording of `Abdur-Raziq for the same hadith is as follows: “Umm Salamah led us (women) in the `Asr Prayer and stood among us (in the same row).”
- In addition, Al-Hafiz said in Ad-Dirayah (1/169), “Muhammad ibn Al-Husain reported from the narration of Ibrahim An-Nakh`i that `A’ishah used to lead women in Prayer during the month of Ramadan while standing among them in the same row.
- Further, `Abdur-Raziq reported (5083) from the narration of Ibrahim ibn Muhammad from Dawud ibn Al-Husain from `Ikrimah from Ibn `Abbas that the latter said, “A woman can lead women in Prayer while standing between them.”
All of the hadiths state that the given woman leads the other women in prayers while standing among them in the same row, and not standing on the first row of the prayers as imams do. They further state that they were among only women, not male worshippers.
Aside from the hadith, there are other sources to consider. The sunnah is a more general source of precedent; it is usually considered to count against women leading mixed congregations, as there are no reports of it happening in Muhammad's time, unless, as Amina Wadud suggested, the aforementioned Umm Waraqah hadith is interpreted to apply to her town rather than to her household alone.
A third source of precedent is the principle of ijma—consensus—supported by the hadith "My community will never agree upon an error." This is also generally quoted against the idea of women leading mixed congregations, since the consensus of the traditional jurists is overwhelmingly against the concept; however, supporters of the idea argue that this consensus is not universal.
One of the most authoritative overviews of the viewpoints of the classical jurists on whether women may lead the prayer or not is "Whether to Keep Women out of the Mosque: A Survey of Medieval Islamic Law" written by Christopher Melchert.[6]
Women-only congregations
Schools differ on whether a woman may be imam (leader) of a
An unusual feature of Islam in China is the existence of nüsi, mosques solely for women. The imams and all the congregants are women and men are not allowed into the buildings. A handful of women have been trained as imams in order to serve these mosques.[8] However, in at least some communities where these mosques operated, women were not allowed in the men's mosques. In recent years, efforts have been made to establish similar mosques in India and Iran.[9]
Mixed-gender congregations
On the basis of the following interpretation of the
There are those who unconditionally permit women to lead men [in prayer], which is my opinion as well. There are those who completely forbid her from such leadership and there are those who permit her to lead women, but not men. The reasoning (behind the unconditional permission) is that [Muhammad] testified that some women attained perfection just as he testified regarding some men—even though the latter were more than the former... a women's leadership (in prayer) is sound... and one should not listen to those who prohibit it without proof, for there is no text to support their claim" - Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad b. 'Ali b. Muhammad Ibn al-' Arabi, Al-Futuhat Al Makiyya.[10]
Within the household, if no qualified man is present, is the one exception for women to lead men in prayers.
In the early years of Islam, the
Well-known early jurists—including
A few
Adding to the arguments in favor of woman-led prayer of mixed congregations, Laury Silvers and Ahmed Elewa recently published a detailed article in the Journal of Law and Religion arguing that female imams are permissible in all circumstances. Their abstract reads:
- This paper, written five years after the Wadud prayer, presents a survey and analysis of the various responses to female led mixed-gender congregational prayers as well as a legal argument for its default permissibility. We show that, in interpreting the Hadiths on woman-led prayer, Sunni schools of law hold a range of opinions on its permissibility. We discuss how Muslim jurists consider historical needs in their rulings, the role of female modesty in this debate, and the nature of juristic consensus. We present our own argument that unrestricted female prayer leadership is legal by default rather than an innovation as many critics have charged. Finally, we set out our own different positions on the propriety of Muslim women asserting their inclusion in the current situation.[13]
In individual countries
Algeria
The first female imam was recruited in 1993 during the Algerian Civil War. Appointed by the Ministry of Religious Affairs, they all have at least a bachelor's degree in Islamic sciences and a thorough knowledge of the Quran. There were around 500 of them in 2015.[1]
Bahrain
A woman disguised as a man attempted to deliver a
Canada
Canadian Muslims have been active in the woman-led prayer movement since 2003 when El-Farouk Khaki organized a woman-led prayer with Ghazala Anwar leading for the Salaam/al-Fatiha International Conference. In 2004, United Muslim Association UMA demonstrated its commitment to having women deliver the sermon and lead the prayer.[15][16][17]
In that year, 20-year-old Maryam Mirza delivered the second half of the Eid al-Fitr khutbah at the Etobicoke mosque in Toronto, run by the UMA.[18] Later the same year,
In April 2005, Raheel Raza led Toronto's first woman-led mixed-gender Friday service, delivering the khutbah and leading the prayers of the congregation. The event was organized by the Muslim Canadian Congress to celebrate Earth Day, and was held in the backyard of the downtown Toronto home of activist Tarek Fatah.[20] In July 2005, Pamela K. Taylor, a Muslim convert since 1986, gave the Friday khutbah and led the mixed-gender prayers at the UMA Toronto mosque at the invitation of the Muslim Canadian Congress on Canada Day.[21] In addition to leading the prayers, Taylor also gave a sermon on the importance of equality among people regardless of gender, race, sexual orientation, and/or disability,[22] marking the first occasion where a Muslim woman led prayers in an official mosque. In 2006, the former Mufti of Marseille, Soheib Bencheikh, requested that either Raza[23] or Taylor lead him in prayer, which Imam Taylor did during a visit to Canada in February 2006.[24] The prayers were sponsored by the Muslim Canadian Congress and held in a private venue with a mixed gender congregation.[25] In 2007, Imam Taylor let prayers for International Woman's Day hosted by the Canadian Muslim Union[26]
From 2008, the Noor Cultural Centre in Toronto has included women on their Board of Khatibs, and women and men alternate giving the call to prayer each week. Women regularly give full length sermons prior to the second adhan, with a male khatib delivering the Arabic portion in brief after the second call until 2012. In 2012, the Noor began having women give the full sermon including the Arabic portions.
In 2009, academic Laury Silvers, activist/lawyer El-Farouk Khaki and artist Troy Jackson founded the Toronto Unity Mosque, the foundation mosque of El-Tawhid Juma Circle, in downtown Toronto. The circle is gender-equal,
Muslims for Progressive Values Canada, an affiliate of Muslims for Progressive Values USA, founded in 2010 by Shahla Khan Salter (chair) leads mixed congregational prayers in Ottawa, Canada. Prayers for MPV Canada have been led by women, including Farhat Rehman and by Zeinab A.
China
A unique feature of
Due to Beijing having tight control over religious practices, Chinese Muslims are isolated from Islamic world trends. According to Dr Khaled Abou el Fadl from the
Denmark
The Mariam mosque in
France
In 2019, Eva Janadin, Anne-Sophie Monsinay and Kahina Bahloul became the first female imams to lead Muslim prayers in France.[33][34]
India
In 2018,
Morocco
Kathleen O'Connor noted in 2009 that a madrasa in Morocco had started training women as Islamic guides (mourchidats).[37] Although, O'Conner's entry may refer to the training of women for pastoral roles as local preachers, not as prayer leaders.
The Italian researcher Sara Borrillo studies the 2004 reform of Moroccan Ministry of Islamic Affairs that institutionalized official women preachers with the task to teach other women the "right" Islam in the mosques. The first official training for mourchidates was established in 2005 and each year since then 50 mourchidates are trained, together with 150 men preachers that could become imam. No woman in Morocco could become imam nor guide a mixed group in Friday prayer. Women can only lead other women in prayer in private spaces.[38]
Netherlands
Since 2015 "Avant-garde" imam Salima el Musalima[39] leads prayers and creates Islamic art in The Netherlands.
South Africa
One of the earliest reported cases of a woman imam in the West occurred in 1995 in Johannesburg, South Africa. For about two years, a congregation met every Friday for the Jum'ah prayer and every night in Ramadan for the special tarāwīh prayer in a building owned by the Muslim Youth Movement of South Africa (MYM). The khutbah for the Jumu'ah was delivered by either a male or female khatib and the imams for the prayer also included men and women. One of the prime movers behind this congregation was Muslim women's rights activist Shamima Shaikh. In January 1998, as per her wishes, one of her four funeral prayers was led by a woman friend, Farhana Ismail.[40]
A year earlier, Amina Wadud (see below) became the first woman in South Africa to deliver the jum'ah khutbah, at the Claremont Main Road Mosque in Cape Town. Farid Esack discusses this event in his 1997 book Qur'an, Liberation, and Pluralism. Following that event, both the Claremont Main Road Mosque and Masjidul Islam, in Johannesburg, often have had women speakers for Jum'ah. In January 1998, as per her wishes, one of the four funeral prayers for Ms. Shaikh was led by a female friend.[40]
South African Muslims heard their first female-led Jum'ah khutbah in 1994 when African-American Islamic studies professor Amina Wadud spoke at the Claremont Main Road Mosque in Cape Town,[41] an experience she discusses in Inside the Gender Jihad. Since then, both that mosque and Masjidul Islam in Johannesburg often have women speakers for jum'ah. Scores of South African and foreign women have been hosted in these two mosques since 1994.
In 2003, a new venue for Eid prayer was established in Durban, designed to allow families to attend the Eid prayer together in a pleasant and comfortable atmosphere. It is run by Taking Islam to the People. At each Eid salaah there are two khutbahs delivered, one by a male and one by a female. Over the seven years from 2003–2010, fourteen women have offered khutbah, including Dr. Lubna Nadvi, Zaytun Suleyman, Fatima Seedat, Fatima Hendricks, Dr Mariam Seedat and Zulaykha Mayat.[42]
In 2005, Farhana Ismail first officiated at a
Spain
Spanish Muslims have been some of the greatest supporters of the woman-led prayer movement. Spanish imam Abdennur Prado responded immediately to the controversial prayer by American Amina Wadud (see USA section) with a supportive legal opinion. He was one of the organisers of the October 2005 Islamic feminism conference in Barcelona, the first attended by men and women from around the world, at which Wadud led a mixed gender congregational prayer.[43][44][45] In 2010, another visiting academic, South African Dr. Sa'diyya Shaikh, gave the khutbah and led the Friday prayer for a mixed congregation.
Turkey
United Kingdom
In 2021, Zara Mohammed became the first female leader of the Muslim Council of Britain.[54] When pressed on BBC Radio 4's Woman's Hour over the number of female imams in Britain, she instead chose to focus on other issues.[55] Many Muslim women celebrated her appointment, and urged her to include more minority groups within MCB's membership[56] and supported her focus on addressing the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on Muslims in the UK.
United States
Ghazala Anwar led a mixed-gender prayer at the al-Fatiha conference in New York City, in 1999. Pamela Taylor (a convert to Islam and co-founder of Muslims for Progressive Values held one of the first woman-led mixed prayers around 2005.[57] Taylor believed that men and women should be perceived and treated as equal under Islam which prompted the woman-led mixed prayer on International Women's Day.[57] She also spoke against the exclusion of women in the mosque which is supposed to considered a place of God.[57] In interviews, she has focused on the inequality of locations regarding where women pray; for instance, they are not permitted to pray in main prayer halls and other locations are very crowded with low-quality sound systems.[57] Furthermore, children are also forced into the women's sector of the mosque which make it highly difficult for the women to concentrate while praying.[57] However, it is believed that the first woman in Canada to lead a mixed-prayer is Canadian journalist, Raheel Raza.[58] Raza has also become the first Muslim woman to also lead a mixed-gender predominantly British group.[59] Her prayers and work within the British congregation has allowed scholars to question the relationship between female leadership and the Islamic religion.[59]
In 2005, African-American Islamic scholar amina wadud led a congregation in Friday prayer and gave a sermon in New York City. Another woman sounded the call to prayer, while not wearing a headscarf, and no curtain divided the men and women.[60] This was not the first woman-led mixed-gender congregational prayer (see the above noted events), but it was the first to gain national and international attention.
The prayer was the "shot across the bow" that galvanized conversations and action[61] concerning women's place in the mosque ultimately leading to the ISNA pamphlet "Women Friendly Mosque Initiative" and websites such as Side Entrance, increased presence of women in mosques in positions of authority, and most recently the woman-only mosque Women's Mosque of America.
The Progressive Muslim Union followed the Wadud prayer with a woman-led prayer initiative. The initiative sought to bring together the varied progressive opinions on the prayer as well as engage more conservative Muslims by encouraging further debate, highlighting legal opinions in support of the prayer (as well as giving space to the overwhelming negative opinions), facilitating Muslims who would like to organize future prayers, and documenting those events as they heard of them. Progressives and others sympathetic to bringing about a transformation of gender privilege in Islam continue to work for the establishment of woman-led prayer.
Many perceived the Wadud prayer to be an inevitable reaction to the deplorable situation of women in mosques in North America. The attention garnered by the event forced more conservative Muslim organizations to publicly acknowledge the situation and call for changes. ISNA responded with guidelines for women-friendly mosques.[62] Scholars such as Imam Zaid Shakir and Dr. Louay M. Safi have been calling attention to and working to change mosque conditions for years. Progressives and others would argue, though, that mosque conditions are merely a symptom of a widespread sense of male entitlement following centuries of male privilege in the intellectual and political power centers of Islam.
Women continue to lead prayers in the United States in their communities with or without media coverage: Nakia Jackson led Eid prayers in 2006 and 2007, with Laury Silvers giving the khutba. When Nakia Jackson led Laury Silvers in prayer, Silvers was a Muslim and a professor at Skidmore College teaching Islam; it was her first time having a prayer led by a woman in which it was Nakia Jackson.[63] Jackson's leadership as a female in Islam allowed women to challenge the norms of Islamic culture and sparked a movement to break traditional barriers.[57] Ultimately, the end goal was to develop a community and global movement that would stimulate and encourage Islamic female leadership that is equal to those of men.[57] Qalbu Maryam Women's Mosque, established in Berkeley California is one of the few progressive mosques in the USA that is also inclusive of all people, Founder Rabi'a Keeble has acted as Imam on some occasions but insists that women should learn to lead prayer, call to prayer, and all aspects of participation once held only for males.
Since early 2006, Muslims for Progressive Values has had a continuous gender-equal prayer space in West Hollywood, California. Both men and women are allowed to lead prayers and deliver a khutba. Although congregants may choose to position themselves wherever they like, there is no gender segregation policy during prayer.[64] The first dedicated gender-equal prayer space in the United States was founded by Fatima Thompson and Imam Daayiee Abdullah in Washington D.C., as a sister mosque to the El-Tawhid Juma Circle founded two years previously in Toronto (see above). Imam Pamela K. Taylor led the DC congregation prayers for Eid Ul Adha in 2010 at the All Souls Church.[65] She also gave the inaugural sermon for the MPV mosque in Columbus, OH in 2012 with a sermon focused on God's Love.[66]
See also
- Christopher Melchert
- Effect of feminism on religion
- Imam
- Liberal movements within Islam
- Ordination of women
- Sex segregation in Islam
- Shia Imam
- Tynnetta Muhammad
- Women in Islam
Notes
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- ^ Women in Islam By Wiebke Walther published by Markus Wiener Publishing, 1981, p. 111 (citing Ibn Sad, Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, vol. 8, p. 335)
- ^ a b "Female Prayer Leadership (Revisited)" Archived 2008-12-07 at the Wayback Machine, New Islamic Directions by Imam Zaid, 2008-04-22. Retrieved on 2008-11-29.]
- ^ Melchert, Christopher. "Whether to Keep Women out of the Mosque: A Survey of Medieval Islamic Law". Pages 59–69 in Authority, Privacy and Public Order in Islam: Proceedings of the 22nd Congress of l'Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants. Edited by B. Michalak-Pikulska and A. Pikulsi. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 148. Leuven: Peeters, 2006.
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O'Connor, Kathleen M. (2009), "imam", in Campo, Juan Eduardo (ed.), Encyclopedia of Islam, Infobase Publishing, p. 348, ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1,
[...] women have begun to be trained as imams at a recently established madrasa (legal college) in Morocco.
- ^
Borrillo, Sara (2010), "Le murshidat in Marocco: compromesso o rivoluzione?", in De Clementi, Andreina (ed.), Genesis (III/1-2009) - Rivista della Società Italiana delle Storiche - Il Mestiere di Storica, Viella, p. 228, ISBN 9788883344503
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External links
- Muslims for Progressive Values
- FITNA - Feminist Islamic Troublemakers of North America
- International Museum of Women Feature on Women Spiritual Guides in Morocco
- ruling by Zarabozo (includes Arabic quotes)
- Religious conservatism: Feminist theology as a means of combating injustice toward women in Muslim communities/culture by Riffat Hasan
- An Examination of the Issue of Female Prayer Leadership by Imam Zaid Shakir
- Dr. Khaled Abou el-Fadl's fatwa on women leading prayer
- In Recognition of Women Archived 2006-10-16 at the Wayback Machine
- Woman leads Muslim prayer service in New York
- Women in Society: Political Participation
- "I Am One of the People’: A Survey and Analysis of Legal Arguments on Woman-Led Prayer in Islam", Journal of Law and Religion 26.1 2010-2011 by Ahmed Elewa and Laury Silvers
- MPV Ummah Canada
- Facebook group of Muslim hipsters (Mipsterz)