Women in ancient and imperial China
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Women in ancient and imperial China were restricted from participating in various realms of social life,[1] through social stipulations that they remain indoors, whilst outside business should be conducted by men.[2] The strict division of the sexes, apparent in the policy that "men plow, women weave" (Chinese: 男耕女織), partitioned male and female histories as early as the Zhou dynasty, with the Rites of Zhou (written at the end of the Warring States Period), even stipulating that women be educated specifically in "women's rites" (Chinese: 陰禮; pinyin: yīnlǐ).[3] Though limited by policies that prevented them from owning property,[4] taking examinations, or holding office,[5] their restriction to a distinctive women's world prompted the development of female-specific occupations, exclusive literary circles, whilst also investing certain women with certain types of political influence inaccessible to men.[6]
Women had greater freedom during the
The study of
Ancient China
Received
Neolithic
Neolithic society in China is perceived to be
Female figurines representing either
Women buried at sites belonging to the
Shang dynasty
Women's status varied between regions during the Shang dynasty. While Shang dynasty women are thought to have been considered lower in status to men,[22] archaeological excavations of burials have shown that women not only could reach high status but that they also exercised political power. The tomb of Fu Hao, consort of King Wu Ding, contained precious jade objects and ritual bronze vessels, demonstrating her wealth. In addition, texts from the Shang dynasty have been excavated that record Fu Hao leading troops into battle to the north of Shang territories, conquering states, leading services to worship ancestors, and assisting in political affairs at court.[23] After her death, Fu Hao was honored by later rulers as Ancestor Xin and given sacrifices to ensure she remained benevolent.[24]
The topics of the
: 婦井) was also the first wife.Zhou dynasty
By the
Transmitted texts give a general impression of how
The specifications of the Zhou ritual texts regarding women were not always followed. For example, the cemetery of the Marquises of Jin in Shanxi contained 19 joint burials of the Jin lords and their wives.[31] Based on the rich burial goods, archaeologists have suggested that women's status was closer to that of the men during the 10th century BC, potentially because the Zhou dynasty rituals were not yet strictly implemented. In burials from the early 9th century, however, the quantity of bronze vessels accompanying the wives decreases markedly, suggesting that the ritual system dictating a wife's subordination to her husband was in place. The burial of a Jin lord dating to the 8th century BC, in contrast, is smaller than either tomb of his two wives, an act explicitly forbidden by the texts. This demonstrates the waning power of the Zhou government, as well as the variability in the levels of application of the rituals.[32]
There are records of women during this period
Spring and Autumn period
The decline of the Zhou dynasty's power heralded a period where its feudal states became increasingly independent and powerful in their own right. Philosophies that dictated how the world should be ordered became particularly abundant in this period of unrest, the majority of which emphasized women's inferiority to their male counterparts. The Book of Rites dictates that a woman should be married by 20 or, "if there is a problem, be married by 23."[28] Despite this, female relatives of rulers played key roles in diplomacy. For example, two wives of Duke Wen of Zheng personally visited King Cheng of Chu to thank him after he sent military aid to Zheng.[39]
In spite of social rules that the sexes should be segregated,[2] women were in charge of events held in their home (the domestic sphere), even if social rules meant that they should not appear to be. Even for meetings that were restricted to males, the woman of the house is often recorded as keeping a watchful eye on events. In one case, a minister of Jin requested that his wife assess his colleagues during a drinking party from behind a screen; his wife then gave the minister advice on the personalities of his guests.[40] Similarly, a minister of Cao allowed his wife to observe a meeting between himself and Chong'er of Jin. She judged that Chong'er would become an exceptional leader, however, the ruler of Cao Duke Gong treated Chong'er with disrespect. After his reinstatement, Chong'er invaded Cao.[40] The evidence, therefore, suggests that women were closely involved with important political and social events, serving as advisers, planners, and providers of food.[41]
Recorded professions for women of lower social classes in this period include weavers,[42] cooks, and musical performers.[43] However, the majority of textual and archaeological evidence concerns upper-class women, which makes it difficult to reconstruct the lives of everyday people.
Imperial China
Qin dynasty
Confucian teachings supported
Han dynasty
Records testify to women exercising authority through their families. The excavation of a married couple's tomb in
The scholar Ban Zhao, author of Lessons for Women, describes 'womanly virtue' (Chinese: 女德; pinyin: nüde) as requiring no, "brilliant talent or remarkable difference. Womanly language need not be clever in disputation or sharp in conversation."[51]
The taxation systems during the Western and
After the Han dynasty during the Three Kingdoms period, the writer Fu Xuan wrote a poem, bemoaning the status of women. The poem begins: "How sad it is to be a woman! Nothing on earth is held so cheap."[53] Fu Xuan was a Confucian, however, the low status of women is commonly described in relation to Confucianism adopted during the Han dynasty.[54][55]
Tang dynasty
The
The Tang dynasty ruling family was paternally Han Chinese and maternally Xianbei, who were a Mongolic people. Tang society followed the traditions of
The frequency of
先朝割愛隆婚,義寧家園,謂回顧必能御侮,安靜塞垣。今回顧所為,甚不循理,每馬首南向,姑得不畏高祖、太宗之威靈!慾侵擾邊疆,豈不思太皇太后慈愛!為其國母,足得指揮。若回顧不能稟命,則是棄絕姻好,今日已後,不得以姑為詞
Originally, the empire lost its beloved daughter for a marriage that would make peace with the Uyghur Khaganate and cause them to assist in stabilizing and defending the empire's borders. Recently, the actions of the khaganate have been thoroughly unreasonable and its horses have come south. Do you, Aunt, not fear the anger of Emperor Gaozu and Emperor Taizong's spirits! When the empire's borders are disturbed, do you not think of the love of the Grand Empress Dowager! You are the mother of the khaganate and should be powerful enough to issue orders. If the khaganate does not follow your orders, this will end the relationship between our two states and they will no longer be able to hide behind you!
The Tang saw an increasing perception of women as a
The level of education required of
Song Ruoshen (Chinese: 宋若莘), Song Ruozhao (宋若昭), Song Ruoxian (宋若憲), Song Ruolun (宋若倫) and Song Ruoxun (宋若荀) were five sisters who all became employed as official poets at the Imperial court.[72] Another known poetess was Du Qiuniang, who was the only poetess to be included in the famous anthology Three Hundred Tang Poems.[73]
Examples of occupations pursued by women include trade (selling foodstuffs),
The Tang
Song dynasty
During the Song dynasty,
While it is commonly argued that the decline of the status of women from the Song dynasty to the Qing was due to the rise of neo-Confucianism, others have also suggested that the cause may be more complex, a result of various social, political, legal, economic, and cultural forces, for example, changes in inheritance practices and social structure.[7] Such changes led to the increasing dominance of orthodox patrilineal ideology, and family practices across China then became standardized by state law based on patriarchal principles.[90] Nevertheless, the neo-Confucians were in part responsible for such changes. For example, it was the Song dynasty neo-Confucians who criticized the practice of women keeping their own dowries including properties they had inherited from their fathers, and after the death of their husbands, returned to the family of their birth along with such properties as well as any wealth they had accumulated during their marriage.[91] Song dynasty widows who returned to their original family, referred to as guizong (歸宗), enjoyed the protection of the laws on property rights, which made their remarriage easier.[92] The neo-Confucians challenged such laws and argued that these widows should stay with their husbands' families to support them. Such neo-Confucian arguments won favor during the Yuan dynasty, and laws were then enacted forbidding women from taking their own properties back to the families of their birth, or to another family should they remarry. In so doing, a woman's property became the property of her first husband's family, which diminished a woman's worth and her prospect of remarriage.[91]
During the Song dynasty, foot binding also became popular among the elite, later spreading to other social classes. The earliest known references to bound feet appeared in this period, and evidence from archaeology also indicates that foot binding was practiced among elite women in the thirteenth century.[93][94][95] The practice may have originated among elite dancers immediately before the Song dynasty during the Southern Tang (937–976),[96][97] and ironically the increasing popularity of the practice also led to the decline of the art of dance among women, and less and less was heard about beauties and courtesans who were also great dancers after the Song dynasty.[98]
Women of the period were expected to manage much of household matters, with food preparation for nourishment and entertainment being a significant part of the work. The Song dynasty Wushi Zhongkuilu (Chinese: 吳氏中饋錄; pinyin: Wushi Zhoungkuilu), the earliest known culinary work written by a Chinese woman, reveals the wide variety of dishes essential for daily consumption and the significant amount of curing, pickling, and preservation done by women in households at the time.[99]
Yuan dynasty
The role of women in Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty is open to various debates. Mongol women, who divided herding work with men, had more power than women in contemporary China. However, Mongol society was essentially patriarchal, and women were generally expected only to serve her husband and family.[100] The Yuan dynasty practiced marrying female relatives to rulers of neighboring states to forge political alliances like the earlier Tang dynasty, and these Yuan relatives were genuine members of the imperial house.
Jurchen women started becoming nuns of the Quanzhen sect under the Mongols.
During the Yuan dynasty, due to the different cultural practices of the Mongols and Han people, there were for a time different laws that would be applicable only to the Mongols or the Han communities. For example, among the Mongols, levirate marriage in which a man marries the wife of his deceased brother was common, but such practice was frowned upon by Han Chinese people.[92] Laws promoting widow chastity on Han women were first enacted in part under the influence of the Song dynasty Confucians who argued against the remarriage of widows. In the early 1300s. women were stripped of their dowry rights and forfeited their property should they leave their first marriage.[92] The Yuan promoted Neo Confucian patriarchal ideas formulated by Song dynasty philosopher Zhu Xi.[106] The Yuan also stopped its initial push for levirate practices to be adopted Han, retracting the law and instead adopting the strict neo-Confucian position of Zhu Xi for widow chastity, adopting neo-Confucianism even more than past Han dynasties.[107][108][109] Levirate was also banned for non-Han.[110]
Ming dynasty
During the Ming dynasty, chaste widows were elevated to the role of cultural heroes.[88] Widow chastity became increasingly common, and chastity also became associated with suicide, with suicide by widows increasing dramatically during the Ming era.[111][90] "Chaste widow" (Chinese: 節妇; pinyin: jiéfù) were commemorated by the construction of memorial chastity arches (Chinese: 貞節牌坊; pinyin: zhēnjiépáifāng) and shrines, and honoured with commemorative writings.[90][112] The Ming authority began to reward widow chastity, and widows who remarried would have their dowry and their husbands' property forfeited.[111] Such changes in marriage and property laws to discourage remarriage started during the Yuan dynasty, which made widow chastity increasingly popular.[92] The state also awarded 'testimonial of merit' (Chinese: 旌表; pinyin: jīngbiǎo) to chaste widow, giving approval of local chastity cults whereby commemorative arches and shrines were erected to honour the women by members of their families or communities. In the late 16th century, such awards were also extended to women who died resisting rape.[113] Women who died or committed suicide to protect their honour were referred to as "fierce women" (烈女, liènǚ, which is distinct from the homophone term "exemplary women" 列女, liènǚ), with the word "fierce" (烈) carrying connotation of martyrdom.[91]
In contrast to "chaste women" of the Ming period were the "licentious women" (Chinese: 淫妇; pinyin: yínfù). Ming popular literature of the time produced numerous stories about such wanton women, the most notorious being the fictional Pan Jinlian from the novel Jin Ping Mei.[112] During the Ming dynasty, a well-known saying about women also appeared: "A woman without talent is virtuous" (女子無才便是德).[114]
An unusual feature of Ming dynasty imperial marriages was the stipulation by its founder Hongwu Emperor that all the consorts of the Ming court should come from low-ranking families. The result of this policy is that palace women of the Ming era were less powerful compared to those of other dynasties.[90]
Qing dynasty
The social position of women during the
Biographies of citizens of merit recognized women for what the writers judged to be moral achievements, such as committing
The Qing government praised demonstrations of virtue and, to prove their commitment to morality, discouraged officials and scholars from visiting courtesans. The developed academic and literary circles
Empress Dowager Cixi was effectively the ruler of China in the late Qing period. She governed for 47 years (from 1861 to 1908) from behind the throne of the emperors who were installed as figureheads.[126]
During the Qing dynasty, opposition to
An early Chinese feminist was
See also
- Women in China
- Four Beauties
- Timeline of women in ancient warfare
- Women in Confucian thought
- Women in Buddhism
- Hua Mulan
- Li Qingzhao
- Mui Tsai
- Wu Zetian
- Empress Dowager Cixi
- Nüshu script
- History of China
- Homosexuality in China
- Women in Taoism
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Further reading
- Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Stefanowska, A. D.; Ho, Clara Wing-chung, eds. (1998). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: The Qing Period, 1644-1911. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1827-6. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Bossler, Beverly (2013). Courtesans, concubines, and the cult of female fidelity: gender and social change in China, 1000-1400. ISBN 978-0-674-06669-4.
- ISBN 978-0-520-91348-6. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- Hinsch, Bret (2011). Women in early imperial China (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-0-7425-6824-2. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-674-01393-3.
- Holdsworth, May (2000). Women of the Tang dynasty. Odyssey Publications. ISBN 978-962-217-644-7.