Women in architecture
Part of a series on |
Women in society |
---|
Women in architecture have been documented for many centuries, as professional (or amateur) practitioners, educators and clients. Since architecture became organized as a profession in 1857, the number of women in architecture has been low. At the end of the 19th century, starting in Finland, certain
Early examples
Two European women stand out as early examples of women playing an important part in architecture, designing or defining the development of buildings under construction. In France, Katherine Briçonnet (c. 1494–1526) was influential in designing the Château de Chenonceau in the Loire Valley, supervising the construction work between 1513 and 1521 and taking important architectural decisions while her husband was away fighting in the Italian wars.[4] In Italy, Plautilla Bricci (1616–1690) worked with her brother, Basilio, and alone on chapels and palaces near Rome.[5]
In Britain, there is evidence that Lady Elizabeth Wilbraham (1632–1705) studied the work of the Dutch architect Pieter Post as well as that of Palladio in Veneto, Italy, and the Stadtresidenz at Landshut, Germany.[6] She has been put forward as the architect of Wotton House in Buckinghamshire and of many other buildings. It has also been suggested that she tutored Sir Christopher Wren. Wilbraham had to use male architects to supervise the construction work.[7] There is now much research including that by John Millar[7] to show she may have designed up to 400 buildings including 18 London churches previously attributed to her pupil Sir Christopher Wren.
Towards the end of the 18th century, another Englishwoman,
-
Katherine Briçonnet: Chenonceau tower (1521)
-
Wotton House, Buckinghamshire (1714), possibly designed by Elizabeth Wilbraham
-
Mary Townley: Townley House, Ramsgate (1780)
-
Sara Losh: St Mary's Church, Wreay (1842)
Modern pioneers
Yet another Englishwoman,
The daughter of a French-Canadian carriage maker,
Minerva Parker Nichols (1862–1949) was the first American women to work as a professional architect without a male partner. She practiced in the Philadelphia area in the 1880s and 1890s. She graduated from the Philadelphia Normal Art School in 1882 and then completed a two-year course in architectural drawing at the Franklin Institute Drawing School in 1886. Following graduation, she joined the architectural firm of Edwin W. Thorne, taking over his office when he departed in 1889, making Parker Nichols the first independently practicing female architect in the United States. She also completed a certificate at the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Arts in 1889. Between 1888 and 1893, Parker Nichols had over sixty commissions, which were primarily dwellings but also included two spaghetti factories, the Philadelphia New Century Club in 1891, the Queen Isabella Pavilion for the Columbian Exposition Committee, and the Wilmington, Delaware New Century Club in 1893.[17] In 1894, she designed a building for the Browne & Nichols School in Cambridge, Massachusetts. From 1891–1895, she taught architecture and historic ornament at the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, now Moore College of Art and Design. She closed her formal practice in Philadelphia in 1896 when she moved to Brooklyn with her husband, but she continued to design buildings throughout her life.[18] [19]
Julia Morgan (1872–1957) was an American architect and engineer. She designed more than 700 buildings in California during a long and prolific career. She is best known for her work on Hearst Castle in San Simeon, California. Morgan was the first woman to be admitted to the architecture program at l'École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris and the first female architect licensed in California. She designed many edifices for institutions serving women and girls, including a number of YWCAs and buildings for Mills College. Julia Morgan was the first woman to receive American Institute of Architects’ highest award, the AIA Gold Medal, posthumously in 2014. (See separate Wikipedia entry for Julia Morgan for sources.)
Another early practicing architect in the United States was Emily Williams (1869–1942) from northern California. In 1901, together with her friend Lillian Palmer, she moved to San Francisco where she studied drafting at the California High School of Mechanical Arts. Encouraged by Palmer, she went on to build a number of cottages and houses in the area, including a family home on 1037 Broadway in San Francisco, now a listed building.[20]
A notable pioneer of the early days was Josephine Wright Chapman (1867–1943). Chapman received no formal education in architecture but went on design a number of buildings before setting up her own firm. The architect of Tuckerman Hall in Worcester, Massachusetts, she is considered to be one of America's earliest and most successful female architects.[22]
Ruth Crawford Mitchell (1890–1984) an advocate for student immigrants at the University of Pittsburgh, conceived, designed and supervised the Nationality Rooms in the Cathedral of Learning.[23][24][25]
Olive Tjaden (1904–1997) earned an architecture degree from Cornell University in 1925.[26] She was one of the most prominent female architects in the US Northeast, and the only woman member of the American Institute of Architects for many years.[26] An architecture building at Cornell is named in her honor.[26]
-
George, South Africa (1849)
-
Mother Joseph Pariseau: Providence Academy, Vancouver, Washington(1873)
-
Hill-Stead, Farmington, Connecticut(1901),
-
Josephine Wright Chapman, Tuckerman Hall, Worcester, Massachusetts (1902)
-
Mary Colter: La Posada Hotel, Winslow, Arizona (1930)
First academic qualifications
Finland
Finland is the country in which women were first permitted to undertake architectural studies and receive academic qualifications[29] even if they were initially given the status of special students. The earliest record belongs to Signe Hornborg (1862–1916) who attended the Helsinki Polytechnic Institute from the spring of 1888, graduating as an architect in 1890 "by special permission". She does not, however, appear to have acted as an independent architect.[30] Other graduates in architecture at the Polytechnic Institute in the 1880s include Inez Holming, Signe Lagerborg, Bertha Enwald, Stina Östman and Wivi Lönn.[31] Lönn (1872–1966), who attended the institute from 1893 to 1896, has the honour of being the first woman to work independently as an architect in Finland. On graduating, she immediately established her own architectural firm by receiving a commission to design the building of a Finnish-language girls' school in Tampere. She designed several significant public buildings, including more than thirty school buildings. Lönn won five architectural competitions alone, including the municipal fire-station in Tampere in 1906, an unusual design for a woman at that time. Lönn won two competitions with Armas Lindgren with him she designed the New Student House in Helsinki (1910) and the Estonia Theatre in Tallinn (1913). One of her last was the Sodankylä Geophysical Observatory, completed in 1945.[32] Hilda Hongell (1867–1952), from Finland's Åland, became a special student at Helsinki Industrial School in 1891 at a time when only men could attend the institution. Following excellent results, she was accepted as a regular student the following year and graduated as a "master builder" in 1894. She went on to design 98 buildings in the Mariehamn district of the Åland Islands, mostly town houses and farm houses in the ornamental Swiss style. However, she did not qualify as an architect.[33]
-
Hilda Hongell: Wooden villa in Mariehamn, Finland (1987)
Other early graduates
Florence Mary Taylor (1879–1969) emigrated at an early age from England to Australia with her parents. She enrolled in night classes at the Sydney Technical College where she became the first woman to complete final year studies in architecture in 1904.[38] She went on to work in the busy office of John Burcham Clamp, where she became chief draftsperson.[39] In 1907, with Clamp's support, she applied to become the first female member of the Institute of Architects of New South Wales but faced considerable opposition, only being invited to join in 1920.[40]
Alice C. Malhiot (1889–1968) holds the distinction of being the very first Canadian women to graduate from an accredited School of Architecture. Malhiot achieved this accreditation from the Rhode Island School of Design in 1910, returning to her hometown of Calgary, Alberta shortly afterwards to pursue a career in architecture. Between the years of 1910–1913, Alice had been employed on and off at the busy architectural office of Lang & Major Architects. In 1911, despite her existing architectural education, Malhiot travelled to Edmonton to enrol as a student in the University of Alberta's new Department of Architecture established by Cecil S. Burgess. In 1914, Alice C. Malhiot's graduation from the program was published in local and international newspapers, celebrating the becoming of "the first women architect in Canada." However, the paper described Hill as a woman who "...will shortly become a full-fledged architect" and no record of her final graduation from the University of Alberta has since been reported.[44]
Previously thought to be the first Canadian women to graduate from architecture school, Esther Marjorie Hill (1895–1985) completed her architecture education at the University of Toronto in 1920. Chair of the program's department, C.H.C Wright, reportedly protested Hill's graduation as Ontario's first female architect by refusing to attend the ceremony. After graduating, Esther moved across Canada to Edmonton, Alberta where the Alberta Association of Architects implemented further resistance to her participation in the profession by adding one year of work in an architect's office to its entrance requirements. Nonetheless, Hill found employment with an Edmonton architectural firm prior to enrolling at the University of Toronto for postgraduate work in urban planning. In 1936, following a momentary hiatus from architecture during the Great Depression, Hill started her own architecture practice in Victoria, British Columbia. Primarily specializing in residential architecture, her designs were recognized for their large windows, open spaces, and kitchens with generous cupboards and high countertops.[45]
European developments
After Finland, several other European countries allowed women to study architecture. In Norway, the first female architect was Lilla Hansen (1872–1962) who studied at the Royal Drafting School (Den Kongelige Tegneskole) in Kristiania (1894) and served architectural apprenticeships in Brussels, Kristiania and Copenhagen. She established her own practice in 1912 and gained immediate success with Heftyeterrassen, a Neo-baroque residential complex in Oslo. She went on to design a number of large villas as well as student accommodation for women.[46]
The first woman to run an architecture practice in
The first woman to become an engineer in
In Serbia, Jelisaveta Načić (1878–1955) studied architecture at the University of Belgrade at a time when it was felt that women should not enter the profession. At the age of 22, she was the first woman to graduate from the Faculty of Engineering. As a woman, she was unable to obtain the ministerial post she sought but gained employment with the Municipality of Belgrade where she became chief architect. Among her notable achievements are the well-proportioned Kralj Petar I (King Peter I) elementary school (1906) and the Moravian-styled Alexander Nevsky Church (1929), both in Belgrade.[49] The first female architect in Serbia, she did much to inspire other women to enter the profession.[50]
In Switzerland, Flora Steiger-Crawford (1899–1991) was the first woman to graduate in architecture from Zurich's Federal Institute of Technology in 1923. She established her own firm with her husband Rudolf Steiger in 1924.[52] Their first project, the Sandreuter House in Riehen (1924), is considered to be the first Modernist house in Switzerland. In 1938, she terminated her architectural activities in favour of sculpture.[53]
-
Lilla Hansen: Heftyeterrassen, Oslo (1929)
-
Emilie Winkelmann: Tribüne theatre, Berlin (1915)
-
Jelisaveta Načić: Alexander Nevsky Church, Belgrade (1929)
The first woman to be admitted to Britain's Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) was Ethel Charles (1871–1962) in 1898. She and her sister Bessie were both trained as architects under the partnership of Ernest George and Harold Peto. In 1893, they both attempted to continue their training by attending the Architectural Association School of Architecture but were refused entry. Ethel completed part of the course offered by the Bartlett School of Architecture, receiving distinctions. As a woman, though, she was unable to obtain large-scale commissions and was forced to concentrate on modest housing projects such as labourers' cottages.[54][55] Another early female architect in Britain was Edith Hughes (1888–1971), a Scot, who after attending lectures on art and architecture at the Sorbonne, studied at Gray's School of Art, Aberdeen, where she received a diploma in architecture in 1914. In addition to teaching at the Glasgow School of Art, she established her own practice in 1920, specializing in kitchen design.[56] The first woman to design a major public building in Britain was Elisabeth Scott (1898–1972) who was the architect behind the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre at Stratford-upon-Avon completed in 1932.[57] Gillian Harrison (1898–1974) was one of the first four Architectural Association students,[58] and in 1931 became the first woman Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects.[59]
-
Edith Hughes: Glasgow Mercat Cross (left) (1930)
Male and female professional partnerships
A number of the more important women architects in the first half of the 20th century partnered with men, often forming husband-and-wife practices.[60] Such partnerships began in the early years of women's involvement when some of the most successful male architects worked with women. Since the 1960s, which saw increased enrollment by women into schools of Architecture, male and female students have often met and later married; long hours working together and a shared passion have been described as "the perfect prescription for romance".[61] A good overview of this topic is also discussed in Ann Forsyth's "In Praise of Zaha"[62]
Male-female partnerships in architecture sometimes lead to misattribution of the work to the male partner, often because the male is better known. This can be seen as the result of an underlying discrimination or biased attitude. What has been described as the "tradition of misattribution" has remained a "secret" until recent years.[63]
Some particularly notable male-female partnerships in architecture include:
- Aino Aalto (1894–1949) and Alvar Aalto, after qualifying as an architect in Finland in 1920, she married Alvar Aalto in 1923 and participated in the design of his earlier buildings, often contributing to the interiors as in the Villa Mairea (1937) in Noormarkku.[64]
- Reima and Raili Pietilä, another Finnish couple, worked closely together developing their early Modernistic style. Raili Pietilä (born 1926) found two the perfect number for a design team, explaining: "We often took our work with us: for a walk, in the kitchen, and in the evenings. And when doing competitions we used to take trips, like long train journeys, because we found that changing your environment affects your thinking."[65]
- In Denmark, Inger and Johannes Exner who married in 1952 formed a close, highly successful partnership, building or restoring churches, frequently exerting a functional as well as an aesthetic approach in their work.[66]
- French architect and designer Charlotte Perriand (1903–1999) established a partnership with an icon of modern architecture, Le Corbusier, contributing to the development of functional living spaces, especially by designing interiors and furniture for his buildings. She later recalled how Le Corbusier insisted on strict adherence to his demanding principles: "The smallest pencil stroke had to have a point, to fulfil a need, or respond to a gesture or posture, and to be achieved at mass-production prices." After collaborating with Le Corbusier for about ten years, Perriand left his studio in 1937 to concentrate on furniture design, often working with Jean Prouvé.[67] The Portuguese architect Maria José Marques da Silva (1914–1996) partnered with her husband David Moreira, completing a number of key buildings in the city of Porto.[68]
- In Germany, Elisabeth Böhm (born 1921) frequently worked with her husband, Gottfried Böhm, designing interiors for apartment buildings and other housing developments.[69]
- Margot Schürrmann (1924–1999) formed a lifelong partnership with her husband Joachim Schürmann. Their influence on German architecture was recognized by the Bund Deutscher Architeken who awarded them their Grand Prize 1998.[70]
- Maria Schwarz (born 1921) is remembered for her partnership with Rudolf Schwarz who assisted in reconstructing the city of Cologne, especially its churches, after the Second World War. After her husband's death in 1961, Maria continued to run the family firm, completing many of her husband's projects in the Cologne area.[69]
- Bernice Alexandra "Ray" Eames, furniture and interior designer, architect, artist, wife and partner of architect Charles Eames. Charles and Ray Eames designed the Eames House and other significant mid-20th century modern buildings. As well, the Eames' produced the influential Eames Lounge Chair and other modernist furniture.
- Elizabeth Close (1912–2011) had difficulty in finding employment after graduation until she followed fellow student William Close to Minneapolis. As husband and wife, they set up their own firm in 1938. In addition to designs of her own including many streamlined private homes, it was Elizabeth who ran the firm in her husband's absence during the Second World War and while he was busy constructing the University of Minnesota campus. The architectural historian Jane King Hession remarked: "By her example she inspired many women in architecture, myself included, but she didn't want to be known as a woman architect – just as an architect who happened to be a woman."[71]
- Castlecrag, a community near Sydney that they designed.[75]
- Also in Australia, Victoriain 1939. Shaw continued to practice architecture until her retirement in 1969.
- Denise Scott Brown (born 1931) and Robert Venturi met in 1960 at the University of Pennsylvania, where Scott Brown completed masters in city planning[77] and architecture while being a faculty member. Shortly after their marriage in 1967, Scott Brown joined his Philadelphia firm Venturi and Rauch, where she became principal in charge of planning in 1969. She has since played a major role at the firm (renamed Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates in 1989) leading civic planning projects and studies, and collaborating with Venturi on the firm's larger projects. She is however resentful of the fact that she is seldom credited for her work. For example, it was her husband who was awarded the Pritzker Prize in 1991 although she explains: "We both design every inch of a building together." In 1997 she speculated: "The question of being a woman will be in the air for ever in my case. If I had not married Bob, would I have gone further or not? Who can tell? But the same question holds for him. If he had not married me, would he have gone further?"[60] Denise Scott Brown also disclosed her feelings about this situation in a chapter of "Gender Space Architecture".[78]
- In the UK, architect
- Ivenue Love-Stanley and her husband William J. "Bill" Stanley III co-founded their architectural firm in 1983 after they had each (in different years) become the first African-Americans, first youngest male then first female, to be registered architects in the U.S. South. Love-Stanley is the business manager and principal in charge of production while her husband handles marketing and is in charge of design.[81]
- In Serbia, Ljiljana Bakić often worked with her husband Dragoljub Bakić. Their most important work was the design of the Pionir Sports Hall, for which they won the "Grand Prix of the Belgrade Architecture Salon" in 1974. Another Serbian architect, Ivanka Raspopović, partnered with fellow architect Ivan Antić to design Belgrade's "Museum of Contemporary Art" and Kragujevac's "21 October Museum" in the 1960s. Both buildings have since become national monuments.
- Lella Vignelli (1934–2016) worked with her partner Massimo Vignelli throughout their lives. Massimo is known for graphic design and she for commercial interiors. They met while at architecture school in Venice, Italy and practice in Milan and the United States.
- Beatriz Peschard Mijares and her husband Alejandro Bernardi co-founded their architectural firm Bernardi Peschard Arquitectura in 2000 after meeting as students at Universidad Anáhuac México in Mexico City.
-
Igner Exner: Kolding Castle Restoration, Kolding (1970)
-
Margot Schürmann: Rolex Building,Köln(1975)
21st Century
Several women architects have had considerable success in recent years, gaining wide recognition for their achievements:
In 2004, the Iraqi-British architect
In 2010, another woman became a Pritzker Prize winner, Kazuyo Sejima from Japan, in partnership with Ryue Nishizawa. Lord Palumbo, the jury chairman, spoke of their architecture "that is simultaneously delicate and powerful, precise and fluid, ingenious but not overly or overtly clever; for the creation of buildings that successfully interact with their contexts and the activities they contain, creating a sense of fullness and experiential richness." Special consideration had been given to the Glass Center at the Toledo Museum of Art in Ohio, and the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa in Ishikawa, Japan.[86]
In 2007 Anna Heringer (born 1977, Germany) won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture for her METI Handmade School built with bamboo and other local materials in Rudrapur, Bangladesh. An example of sustainable architecture, the project was praised not only for its simple, humane approach and beauty but also for the level of cooperation achieved between architects, craftsmen, clients and users.[87] Several RIBA European Awards have been won in recent years by the Danish firm Lundgaard & Tranberg where Lene Tranberg (born 1956) has been a key architect. Projects have included the Royal Danish Playhouse (2008) and Tietgenkollegiet (2005).[88]
In 2010, Sheila Sri Prakash was the first Indian Architect invited to serve on the World Economic Forum's Design Innovation Council, where she created the Reciprocal Design Index as a design tool for Holistically Sustainable Development. She is the first woman in India to have established her in own firm. In 1992, she was a pioneer of environmentally sustainable architecture and had designed a home with recycled material[89]
In 2013, Women In Design, a student organization at the
In 2014 Parlour: women, equity, architecture published the Parlour Guides to Equitable Practice, which provide a practical resource for moving toward a more equitable profession, with a focus on gender equity.[92]
In 2016, Heather Dubbeldam of Dubbeldam Architecture and Design was awarded the Prix de Rome along with 50,000$ to travel to
In 2022 Architecture + Women NZ with Massey University Press published Making Space: A History of New Zealand Women in Architecture. Edited by Elizabeth Cox and written by Cox and 30 other women architects, architectural historians and academics it makes visible the contributions to architecture in New Zealand of over 500 women.[95][96]
-
Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art, Cincinnati(2003)
-
Kazuyo Sejima: Christian Dior Omotesando Building, Tokyo (2003)
-
Anna Heringer: METI Handmade School, Bangladesh (2005)
-
Lene Tranberg: Tietgen Student Housing, Copenhagen (2006)
Women's influence
Although until recently their contributions have been largely unnoticed, women have in fact exerted a fair amount of influence on architecture over the past century. It was
A study on experience in Canada highlights the widespread contributions women have made in recent years, developing innovative approaches to practice and design. Women's significant and growing presence in the profession has attracted more attention than issues of marginalization.[100]
Exhibitions presenting women's achievements in various fields provided early opportunities for women demonstrate their competence in designing pavilions. They included the
Recent statistics
- Europe
In 2010, a survey conducted by the Architects' Council of Europe in 33 countries, found that there were 524,000 architects, of whom 31% were women. However the proportions differed widely from country to country. The countries with the highest proportion of female architects were Greece (57%), Croatia (56%), Bulgaria (50%), Slovenia (50%) and Sweden (49%) while those with the lowest were Slovakia (15%), Austria (16%), the Netherlands (19%), Germany (21%) and Belgium (24%). Over 200,000 of Europe's architects are in Italy or Germany where the proportions of women are 30% and 21% respectively.[103]
- Australia
A study conducted in Australia in 2002 indicated that women comprise 43% of architecture students while their representation in the profession varied from 11.6% in
- South Africa
In 2016 only 21% of the architectural professionals registered in
- United Kingdom
A United Kingdom survey in 2000 stated that 13% of practising architects were women although women comprised 38% of students and 22% of teaching staff.[110] Data from the Fees Bureau in November 2010 showed, however, that only 19% of professional architects were women, a drop of 5% since 2008.[111]
- United States
In 2009, the United States
Canada
Though women make up approximately 50% of graduates from Canadian architecture programs, Statistics Canada's 2011 census revealed that only 29% of the country's registered body of architects identifies as female.[117]
See also
- List of women architects
- Women of the Bauhaus
- Marion Mahony Griffin Prize, awarded to acknowledge a distinctive body of work by a female architect (Australian Institute of Architects)
- Women's School of Planning and Architecture
References
- ^ "rosaria_piomelli". Digital-archives.ccny.cuny.edu. 1937-10-24. Retrieved 2015-09-29.
- ^ Sokolina, Anna, ed. The Routledge Companion to Women in Architecture. London and New York: Routledge, 2021. "The Routledge Companion to Women in Architecture". Archived from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
- ^ "Laureates". The Pritzker Architecture Prize. 2023-03-09.
- ^ M. E. Aubry-Vitet, "Chenonceau", in Revue des deux mondes, no. 69 (1867), p. 855. (in French)
- ^ Waters, Clara Erskine Clement (1904). Women in the Fine Arts: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Twentieth Century A.D. (Public domain ed.). Houghton, Mifflin. pp. 63–.
- ^ John Millar The first woman architect, The Architects' Journal, 11 November 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ a b Jay Merrick Elizabeth Wilbraham, the first lady of architecture, The Independent, 16 February 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ Paul Nettleingham, "Townley House in Ramsgate", Michaels Bookshop Ramsgate. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ St Mary's Church Wreay (Accessed Sept 2012)
- ^ Uglow, Jenny (2012) The Pinecone, Faber and Faber
- Bullen, J. B.(2001) Sara Losh: Architect, Romantic, Mythologist The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 143, No. 1184, Nov., pp. 676–684
- ^ "Gray, Sophia (Sophie) Wharton Myddleton", ArteFacts. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ "Mother Joseph", Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ "Louise Blanchard Bethune (1856–1913)", Women in Architecture (University of Illinois). Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ Louise Blanchard Bethune (1856–1913, Women in Architecture (University of Illinois ). Retrieved 2011-11-14.
- ISBN 978-1-61168-664-7.
- ^ "Minerva Parker Nichols". Retrieved 2023-09-27.
- ^ Margaret (Molly) Lester, “For Homeowners and Housekeepers: The Architecture of Minerva Parker Nichols in Late Nineteenth-Century America,” The Routledge Companion to Women in Architecture, ed. by Anna Sokolina (Routledge, 2021)
- ^ Margaret (Molly) Lester, Specialization and Significance: An Assessment of the Career and Works of Minerva Parker Nichols (Masters Thesis), University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA (http://repository.upenn.edu/hp_theses/208/)
- ^ Inge S. Horton, "Emily Williams: San Jose's First Woman Architect", Women Architects in Northern California, first published in Newsletter of PAC San Jose, Vol. 17, No. 4. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ "Women in Architecture", ARVHA. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Josephine Wright Chapman and Tuckerman Hall", Tuckermanhall.org. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Ruth Crawford Mitchell Memorial Award". Retrieved August 3, 2018.
- ^ "Ruth Crawford Mitchell – Vassar College Encyclopedia". vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu. Retrieved 2018-08-04.
- ^ "Guide to the Ruth Crawford Mitchell Papers, 1914–1980 UA.90.F12 | Digital Pitt". digital2.library.pitt.edu. Retrieved 2018-08-04.
- ^ a b c Geddes, Darryl (1 April 1997). "Olive Tjaden, pioneering architect who designed more than 400 Garden City, L.I., homes, dies at 92". Cornell Chronicle. Cornell University. Archived from the original on 9 March 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
- ^ Heilman, Wayne (September 24, 2013). "Famed Colorado Springs architect Elizabeth Wright Ingraham dies at age 91". Colorado Springs Gazette. Retrieved September 23, 2015.
- ^ "Famed Colorado Springs architect Elizabeth Wright Ingraham dies at age 91". Colorado Springs Gazette. Retrieved 2016-01-07.
- ^ Päivi Nikkanen-Kalt, "Female architects in Finland", ARVHA. Retrieved 23 April 2012
- ^ Karl Heinz Hoffmann and Anika Hakl, "Frauen und Häuser" Archived 2011-09-14 at the Wayback Machine, Hamburgisches Architekturarchiv der Hamburgischen Architektenkammer. (in German) Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Perustaminen: Nainen arkkitehtina", Architecta. (in Finnish) Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Lönn, Wivi (1872–1966)", Biografiakeskus. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Hilda Hongell", Mariehamns stad. (in Swedish) Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ "Woman Invades Field of Modern Architecture", The New York Times, November 17, 1907. Retrieved 17 April 2012
- )
- ^ "Julia Morgan, Early Architect, 1872–1957", California State Capitol Museum. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Mary Rockwell Hook", International Archive of Women in Architecture. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ Willis, Julie and Bronwyn Hanna, Women Architects in Australia 1900–1960, Royal Australian Institute of Architects, 2000
- ^ Hanna, Bronwyn Hanna "Absence and Presence, A Historiography of Early Women Architects in New South Wales"[permanent dead link], PhD, University of New South Wales, 1999. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ Ludlow, Christa (1990). Taylor, Florence Mary (1879–1969). Melbourne University Press. Retrieved 2007-09-07.
- ^ "Noted Architect Dead. E. L. Masqueray Was Chief of Design of St. Louis Exposition", New York Times, May 27, 1917. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ Joy Wallace Dickinson, "Roberts brought Wright style to region's landmark buildings", Orlando Sentinel, September 11, 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Sophia Hayden Bennett", Mit.edu. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Malhiot, Alice Charlotte | Biographical Dictionary of Architects in Canada". dictionaryofarchitectsincanada.org. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
- ^ Wren, Jason. "Ontario's First Female Architect". University of Toronto Magazine. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
- ^ "Lilla Hansen", Store Norske Leksikon. (in Norwegian) Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Emilie Winkelmann, Architektin", Lexikon: Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf von A bis Z, Berlin.de. (in German) Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Ingenieurswissenschaften: Fräulein Diplom-Ingenieur" (in German). Zeit Online. Retrieved 2018-05-25.
- ^ "Alexander Nevsky Church in Belgrade", Nothing Against Serbia. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "One su bile prve: Jelisaveta Načić, prva žena u državnoj službi Srbije", Kulturni centar Beograda. (in Serbian). Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Biographie", k-faktor.com. (in German) Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ "Rudolf Steiger", Sammlungen Aarchive, Zürcher Hochschule der Künste
- ^ "Steiger-Crawford, Flora", Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse. (in French) Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ Sumita Sinha, "Diversity in Architectural Education: Teaching and learning in the context of Diversity", Women in Architecture. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ Lynne Walker, "Golden Age or False Dawn? Women Architects in the Early 20th century", English-heritage.org. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Edith Mary Wardlaw Burnet Hughes (née Burnet)", Dictionary of Scottish Architects. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ Richardson, Albert (22 April 1932). "Shakespeare Memorial Theatre". The Builder. 142: 718.; quoted in Walker (1999: 257)
- ^ "Women as architects". Architectural Association Journal. March 1918.
- ^ "Obituary". RIBA Journal. April 1975.
- ^ ISBN 0-252-02641-1 (online here [1]).
- ^ Anthony, p. 56.
- S2CID 111344884.
- ^ Anthony, pp. 56–57.
- ^ "Internet exhibition on Alvar Aaltos Villa Mairea", Alvar Aalto. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
- ^ David Sokol, "Breaking the Modernist Mold: Raili Pietilä reflects on a life of design with her husband, Reima, and the new exhibition that examines the Pietilä legacy", Metropolismag.com, 24 April 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ "Inger Exner", Dansk Kvindebiografisk Leksikon. (in Danish) Retrieved 21 April 2012.
- ^ "Charlotte Perriand, Architect + Furniture Designer (1903–1999)", Design Museum. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ "Maria José Marques da Silva", University of Porto Famous Alumni. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ a b "Die Frau an seiner Seite. Verleihung der AIV-Ehrenplaketten in Köln", Baunetz. (in German) Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ "Großer BDA-Preis", BDA. (in German) Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ "Then and Now: "Old Gray Heads," part two -- Elizabeth Close". Archived from the original on 19 October 2010.
- ^ Paul Kruty, Walter Burley Griffin, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
- ^ Lynn Becker, "Frank Lloyd Wright's Right-Hand Woman", Repeat. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ "Beyond architecture: Marion Mahony and Walter Burley Griffin", Power House Museum. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ Fred A. Bernstein, "Rediscovering a Heroine of Chicago Architecture", New York Times, January 1, 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ Willis, J. 2012 "Shaw, Mary Turner" in P. Goad and J. Willis The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture, Cambridge University Press, New York, p. 624
- ^ Harvard News Office. "Harvard Gazette: Architect to receive Radcliffe Medal". harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
- ISBN 978-0203449127.
- ^ Stuart Jeffries, "The Saturday interview: architect Amanda Levete", The Guardian (London), April 9, 2011. Retrieved 2012-04-23.
- ^ Grice, E. "My greatest regret is that I didn't make peace with him in life", The Daily Telegraph, 11 March 2009. Retrieved 2012-04-23.
- ^ "Architecture graduates Bill Stanley and Ivenue Love-Stanley are building marriage and monuments together". First Impressions. Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
- ^ a b c "Dame Zaha Hadid awarded the Riba Gold Medal for architecture". BBC News. Bbc.com. 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-09-24.
- ^ "Announcement: Zaha Hadid Becomes the First Woman to Receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize", The Pritzker Architecture Prize. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ Jonathan Glancey and Dan Chung, "Zaha Hadid's Guangzhou Opera House – in pictures", The Guardian, 1 March 2011. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "London Aquatics Centre", Zaha Hadid Architects. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Announcement: Architectural Partners in Japan Become the 2010 Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureates", The Pritzker Architecture Prize. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Nine projects receive 2007 Aga Khan Award for Architecture" Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Aga Khan Development Network. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
- ^ "Lene Tranberg", KVINFO. (in Danish) Retrieved 19 April 2012.
- ^ Recycled Materials in a Designer Home, Inside Outside, 10 June 1992
- ^ Pogrebin, Robin (17 April 2013). "Partner Without the Prize". The New York Times. Retrieved April 18, 2013.
- ^ Wendy Moonan: "AIA Awards 2014 Gold Medal to Julia Morgan", in the Architectural Record, 16 December 2013
- ^ "Parlour Guides to Equitable Practice – Parlour". archiparlour.org. 2015-04-23. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- ^ “Dubbeldam Architecture + Design awarded the prestigious Professional Prix de Rome in Architecture for research in sustainable housing.” The Next Green Innovation in Sustainable Design. July 20, 2016. https://raic.org/sites/raic.org/files/civicrm/persist/contribute/files/dubbeldam(2).pdf
- ^ Smith, Leslie. “Architectural Advocate”. Canadian Interiors. Oct 22, 2018. https://www.canadianinteriors.com/2018/10/22/architectural-advocate/
- ^ "Making Space: New Zealand Women Architects". New Zealand Arts Review. 2022-10-31. Retrieved 2023-01-07.
- OCLC 1347021085.
- ISBN 978-0313296208.
- .
- ISBN 978-0415284493
- ISBN 978-0802082190.
- ^ Évelyne Lang, "Les Premières Femmes Architectes de Suisse" Archived 2014-12-29 at the Wayback Machine, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. (in French) Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ "How We Live Now: Reimagining Spaces with Matrix Feminist Design Co-operative | Barbican". www.barbican.org.uk. Retrieved 2021-07-28.
- ^ "The Architectural Profession in Europe 2010", Architects' Council of Europe. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ "Research – Parlour". archiparlour.org. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- ^ Matthewson, Gill; Clark, Justine (2013-09-14). "The 'half-life' of women architects - Parlour". archiparlour.org. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- ^ Matthewson, Gill (2013-01-29). "Updating the numbers, part 1: at school - Parlour". archiparlour.org. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- ^ Matthewson, Gill (2013-01-26). "Updating the numbers, part 2: at work – Parlour". archiparlour.org. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- ^ Matthewson, Gill (2013-02-10). "Updating the numbers, part 3: Institute membership – Parlour". archiparlour.org. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- ^ "Only 21% of SA architects are women - what can be done?". Property24. 25 August 2016. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
- ^ Karen Burns, "Women in architecture", ArchitectureAU. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ Chrissi McCarthy, "Alarm as number of women architects falls for first time in nearly a decade", Constructing Equality, 11 November 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ NAAB. "2021 Annual Report onArchitecture Education" (PDF).
- ^ Alexis Gregory, "Calling All Women: Finding the Forgotten Architect", AIArchitect, November 12, 2009. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ISBN 978-0742545830.
- ^ AIA. "Membership Demographics Report 2021" (PDF).
- ^ "Blog %". Equity by Design [EQxD]. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
- ^ Moore, Shannon (2017-01-12). "Because it's 2017: Gender Diversity in Canada's Architecture Profession". Canadian Architect. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
External links
Further reading
- ISBN 978-0802044174
- Allaback, Sarah. The First American Women Architects. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0252033216
- Anscombe, Isabelle, A Woman's Touch: Women in Design from 1860 to the Present Day, Penguin, New York, 1985. ISBN 0670778257.
- ISBN 978-0252026416.
- Berkeley, Ellen Perry; McQuaid, Matilda (eds.): Architecture: A Place for Women, Washington D.C., 1989. ISBN 978-0874742312.
- Durning, Louise, and Richard Wrigley, eds. Gender and Architecture. Chichester: Wiley, 2000. ISBN 0471985325.
- Griffin, Marion Mahoney, The Magic of America: Electronic Edition, Chicago, Art Institute of Chicago, 2007.
- Lewis, Anna M., Women of Steel and Stone: 22 Inspirational Architects, Engineers, and Landscape Designers. Chicago Review Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1613745083.
- Lorenz, Clare.Women in Architecture: A Contemporary Perspective. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. ISBN 978-0847812776
- Martin, Brenda; ISBN 978-0415284493
- Matrix, Making Space: Women and the Man Made Environment. London: Pluto Press, 1984.[ISBN missing]
- Matrix, A Job Designing Buildings: For Women Interested in Architecture and Buildings. London: Matrix Feminist Design Co-operative, 1986.[ISBN missing]
- ISBN 0415141281
- ISBN 9780367232344. Online here [3].
- Torre, Susana (ed.), Women in American Architecture: A Historic and Contemporary Perspective, A Publication and Exhibition Organized by the Architectural League of New York, New York, 1977[ISBN missing]
- ISBN 978-0252063992
- Horton, Inge Schaefer, Early Women Architects of the San Francisco Bay Area – The Lives and Work of Fifty Professionals, 1890–1951, McFarland & Company, Jefferson, NC, 2010[ISBN missing]