Woolly mammoth
Woolly mammoth | |
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Largest European specimen, a male at Südostbayerisches Naturkunde- und Mammut-Museum, Siegsdorf | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Proboscidea |
Family: | Elephantidae |
Genus: | †Mammuthus |
Species: | †M. primigenius
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Binomial name | |
†Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach, 1799)
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Dymaxion map showing the Late Pleistocene distribution of M. primigenius in blue (light blue was land at the time), inferred from fossil finds | |
Synonyms | |
List:
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The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) is an extinct species of
The appearance and behaviour of this species are among the best studied of any prehistoric animal because of the discovery of frozen carcasses in Siberia and North America, as well as skeletons, teeth, stomach contents, dung, and depiction from life in prehistoric cave paintings. Mammoth remains had long been known in Asia before they became known to Europeans in the 17th century. The origin of these remains was long a matter of debate, and often explained as being remains of legendary creatures. The mammoth was identified as an extinct species of elephant by Georges Cuvier in 1796.
The woolly mammoth was roughly the same size as modern
The woolly mammoth coexisted with early humans, who used its bones and tusks for making art, tools, and dwellings, and hunted the species for food. The population of woolly mammoths declined at the end of the Late Pleistocene, with the last populations on mainland Siberia persisting until around 10,000 years ago, although isolated populations survived on
Taxonomy
Remains of various extinct elephants were known by Europeans for centuries, but were generally interpreted, based on
Others interpreted Sloane's conclusion slightly differently, arguing the flood had carried elephants from the tropics to the Arctic. Sloane's paper was based on travellers' descriptions and a few scattered bones collected in Siberia and Britain. He discussed the question of whether or not the remains were from elephants, but drew no conclusions.[4] In 1738, the German zoologist Johann Philipp Breyne argued that mammoth fossils represented some kind of elephant. He could not explain why a tropical animal would be found in such a cold area as Siberia, and suggested that they might have been transported there by the Great Flood.[5]
In 1796, French biologist Georges Cuvier was the first to identify the woolly mammoth remains not as modern elephants transported to the Arctic, but as an entirely new species. He argued this species had gone extinct and no longer existed, a concept that was not widely accepted at the time.[1][6] Following Cuvier's identification, German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its scientific name, Elephas primigenius, in 1799, placing it in the same genus as the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). This name is Latin for "the first-born elephant". Cuvier coined the name Elephas mammonteus a few months later, but the former name was subsequently used.[7] In 1828, the British naturalist Joshua Brookes used the name Mammuthus borealis for woolly mammoth fossils in his collection that he put up for sale, thereby coining a new genus name.[8]
Where and how the word "mammoth" originated is unclear. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it comes from an old
By the early 20th century, the taxonomy of extinct elephants was complex. In 1942, American palaeontologist
Osborn chose two molars (found in Siberia and
Evolution
The earliest known members of the Proboscidea, the
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Within six weeks from 2005–2006, three teams of researchers independently assembled mitochondrial genome profiles of the woolly mammoth from ancient DNA, which allowed them to confirm the close evolutionary relationship between mammoths and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).[20][21] A 2015 DNA review confirmed Asian elephants as the closest living relative of the woolly mammoth.[22] African elephants (Loxodonta africana) branched away from this clade around 6 million years ago, close to the time of the similar split between chimpanzees and humans.[23] A 2010 study confirmed these relationships, and suggested the mammoth and Asian elephant lineages diverged 5.8–7.8 million years ago, while African elephants diverged from an earlier common ancestor 6.6–8.8 million years ago.[24]
In 2008, much of the woolly mammoth's
Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities, reconstructing the evolutionary history of the genus through
The first known members of the genus Mammuthus are the African species
Subspecies and hybridisation
Individuals and populations showing transitional morphologies between each of the mammoth species are known, and primitive and
A 2011 genetic study showed that two examined specimens of the Columbian mammoth were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths. This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring. A North American type formerly referred to as M. jeffersonii may be a hybrid between the two species.[33] A 2015 study suggested that the animals in the range where M. columbi and M. primigenius overlapped formed a metapopulation of hybrids with varying morphology. It suggested that Eurasian M. primigenius had a similar relationship with M. trogontherii in areas where their range overlapped.[34]
In 2021, DNA older than a million years was sequenced for the first time, from two mammoth teeth of
Description
The appearance of the woolly mammoth is probably the best known of any prehistoric animal due to the many frozen specimens with preserved soft tissue and depictions by contemporary humans in their art. The average shoulder height for males of the species has been estimated at 2.8–3.15 metres (9.2–10.3 ft) with a weight of 4.5–6 tonnes (9,900–13,200 lb), with females being smaller like living elephants, with a shoulder height of 2.3–2.6 metres (7.5–8.5 ft) and a weight of 2.8–4 tonnes (6,200–8,800 lb).[37] This size is comparable to the largest living elephant species, the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), but is considerably smaller than the earlier Mammuthus meridionalis and Mammuthus trogontherii and the contemporary Mammuthus columbi.[37][38] The woolly mammoth exhibited size variation throughout its range, with individuals from Western Europe being considerably larger (with adult males estimated to be on average 2.99–3.31 metres (9.8–10.9 ft) tall and 5.2–6.9 tonnes (11,000–15,000 lb) in weight) than those found in Siberia (with adult males of this population being estimated on average 2.66–2.94 metres (8.7–9.6 ft) tall and 3.9–5.2 tonnes (8,600–11,500 lb) in weight). One of the largest recorded woolly mammoths is the Siegsdorf specimen from Germany, with an estimated shoulder height of 3.49 metres (11.5 ft) and an estimated body mass of 8.2 tonnes (18,000 lb).[38] A newborn calf would have weighed about 90 kilograms (200 lb).[39]
Few frozen specimens have preserved genitals, so the sex is usually determined through examination of the skeleton. The best indication of sex is the size of the
Woolly mammoths had several adaptations to the cold, most noticeably the layer of fur covering all parts of their bodies. Other adaptations to cold weather include ears that are far smaller than those of modern elephants; they were about 38 cm (15 in) long and 18–28 cm (7.1–11.0 in) across, and the ear of the 6- to 12-month-old frozen calf "Dima" was under 13 cm (5.1 in) long. The small ears reduced heat loss and frostbite, and the tail was short for the same reason, only 36 cm (14 in) long in the "Berezovka mammoth". The tail contained 21 vertebrae, whereas the tails of modern elephants contain 28–33. Their skin was no thicker than that of present-day elephants, between 1.25 and 2.5 cm (0.49 and 0.98 in). They had a layer of fat up to 10 cm (3.9 in) thick under the skin, which helped to keep them warm. Woolly mammoths had broad flaps of skin under their tails which covered the anus; this is also seen in modern elephants.[43]
Other characteristic features depicted in
Coat
The
Since mammoth carcasses were more likely to be preserved, possibly only the winter coat has been preserved in frozen specimens. Modern elephants have much less hair, though juveniles have a more extensive covering of hair than adults.[45] This is thought to be for thermoregulation, helping them lose heat in their hot environments.[46] Comparison between the over-hairs of woolly mammoths and extant elephants show that they did not differ much in overall morphology.[47] Woolly mammoths had numerous sebaceous glands in their skin, which secreted oils into their hair; this would have improved the wool's insulation, repelled water, and given the fur a glossy sheen.[48]
Preserved woolly mammoth fur is orange-brown, but this is believed to be an artefact from the bleaching of pigment during burial. The amount of
Dentition
Woolly mammoths had very long tusks (modified incisor teeth), which were more curved than those of modern elephants. The longest known male tusk is 4.05 m (13.3 ft) long (measured along the outside curve) and weighs 115.5 kg (255 lb), with a historical report of a 4.30 m (14.1 ft) long tusk found in Siberia, while the heaviest tusk is 121 kg (267 lb), suggested to have been 125–130 kg (276–287 lb) when complete.[52][53] 2.4–2.7 m (7.9–8.9 ft) and 45 kg (99 lb) was a more typical size. Female tusks were smaller and thinner, 1.5–1.8 m (4.9–5.9 ft) and weighing 9 kg (20 lb). For comparison, the record for longest tusks of the African bush elephant is 3.4 m (11 ft). The sheaths of the tusks were parallel and spaced closely. About a quarter of the length was inside the sockets. The tusks grew spirally in opposite directions from the base and continued in a curve until the tips pointed towards each other, sometimes crossing. In this way, most of the weight would have been close to the skull, and less torque would occur than with straight tusks.[53][54][52]
The tusks were usually asymmetrical and showed considerable variation, with some tusks curving down instead of outwards and some being shorter due to breakage. Calves developed small
Woolly mammoths had four functional
Palaeobiology
Adult woolly mammoths could effectively defend themselves from predators with their tusks, trunks and size, but juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as
The very long hairs on the tail probably compensated for the shortness of the tail, enabling its use as a
Like modern elephants, woolly mammoths were likely very social and lived in
Adaptations to cold
The woolly mammoth was probably the most specialised member of the family Elephantidae. In addition to their fur, they had lipopexia (fat storage) in their neck and
In a 2015 study, high-quality genome sequences from three Asian elephants and two woolly mammoths were compared. About 1.4 million DNA nucleotide differences were found between mammoths and elephants, which affect the sequence of more than 1,600 proteins. Differences were noted in genes for a number of aspects of physiology and biology that would be relevant to Arctic survival, including development of skin and hair, storage and metabolism of adipose tissue, and perceiving temperature. Genes related to both sensing temperature and transmitting that sensation to the brain were altered. One of the heat-sensing genes encodes a protein, TRPV3, found in skin, which affects hair growth. When inserted into human cells, the mammoth's version of the protein was found to be less sensitive to heat than the elephant's. This is consistent with a previous observation that mice lacking active TRPV3 are likely to spend more time in cooler cage locations than wild-type mice, and have wavier hair. Several alterations in circadian clock genes were found, perhaps needed to cope with the extreme polar variation in length of daylight. Similar mutations are known in other Arctic mammals, such as reindeer.[60][61]
A 2019 study of the woolly mammoth
Diet
Food at various stages of digestion has been found in the intestines of several woolly mammoths, giving a good picture of their diet. Woolly mammoths sustained themselves on plant food, mainly grasses and sedges, which were supplemented with
Scientists identified milk in the stomach and
The molars were adapted to their diet of coarse tundra grasses, with more enamel plates and a higher crown than their earlier, southern relatives. The woolly mammoth chewed its food by using its powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forwards and close the mouth, then backwards while opening; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other, grinding the food. The ridges were wear-resistant to enable the animal to chew large quantities of food, which often contained grit. Woolly mammoths may have used their tusks as shovels to clear snow from the ground and reach the vegetation buried below, and to break ice to drink. This is indicated on many preserved tusks by flat, polished sections up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long, as well as scratches, on the part of the surface that would have reached the ground (especially at their outer curvature). The tusks were used for obtaining food in other ways, such as digging up plants and stripping off bark.[69][70]
Life history
The lifespan of mammals is related to their size, and since modern elephants can reach the age of 60 years, the same is thought to be true for woolly mammoths, which were of a similar size. The age of a mammoth can be roughly determined by counting the
Woolly mammoths continued growing past adulthood, like other elephants. Unfused limb bones show that males grew until they reached the age of 40, and females grew until they were 25. The frozen calf "Dima" was 90 cm (35 in) tall when it died at the age of 6–12 months. At this age, the second set of molars would be in the process of erupting, and the first set would be worn out at 18 months of age. The third set of molars lasted for 10 years, and this process was repeated until the final, sixth set emerged when the animal was 30 years old. When the last set of molars was worn out, the animal would be unable to chew and feed, and it would die of starvation. A study of North American mammoths found that they often died during winter or spring, the hardest times for northern animals to survive.[71]
Examination of preserved calves shows that they were all born during spring and summer, and since modern elephants have
The best-preserved head of a frozen adult specimen, that of a male nicknamed the "Yukagir mammoth", shows that woolly mammoths had temporal glands between the ear and the eye.[75] This feature indicates that, like bull elephants, male woolly mammoths entered "musth", a period of heightened aggressiveness. The glands are used especially by males to produce an oily substance with a strong smell called temporin. Their fur may have helped in spreading the scent further.[76] This was confirmed by a 2023 study that compared the testosterone level in the dentine of an adult African elephant tusk with that of a male woolly mammoth.[77]
Palaeopathology
Evidence of several different bone diseases has been found in woolly mammoths. The most common of these was osteoarthritis, found in 2% of specimens. One specimen from Switzerland had several fused vertebrae as a result of this condition. The "Yukagir mammoth" had suffered from spondylitis in two vertebrae, and osteomyelitis is known from some specimens. Several specimens have healed bone fractures, showing that the animals had survived these injuries.[78] Likewise, spondyloarthropathy has also been identified in woolly mammoth remains.[79] An extra number of cervical vertebrae has been found in 33% of specimens from the North Sea region, probably due to a drop in numbers and subsequent inbreeding.[80] Parasitic flies and protozoa were identified in the gut of the calf "Dima".[81]
Distortion in the molars is the most common health problem found in woolly mammoth fossils. Sometimes, the replacement was disrupted, and the molars were pushed into abnormal positions, but some animals are known to have survived this. Teeth from Britain showed that 2% of specimens had
Distribution and habitat
The habitat of the woolly mammoth is known as "
The southernmost woolly mammoth specimen known is from the
A 2008 genetic study showed that some of the woolly mammoths that entered North America through the Bering land bridge from Asia migrated back about 300,000 years ago and had replaced the previous Asian population by about 40,000 years ago, not long before the entire species became extinct.
Relationship with humans
Modern humans co-existed with woolly mammoths during the
The woolly mammoth is the third-most depicted animal in ice age art, after horses and bison, and these images were produced between 35,000 and 11,500 years ago. Today, more than 500 depictions of woolly mammoths are known, in media ranging from cave paintings and engravings on the walls of 46 caves in Russia, France, and Spain to engravings and sculptures (termed "
"Portable art" can be more accurately dated than cave art since it is found in the same deposits as tools and other ice age artefacts. The largest collection of portable mammoth art, consisting of 62 depictions on 47 plaques, was found in the 1960s at an excavated open-air camp near
Exploitation
Woolly mammoth bones were used as construction material for dwellings by both Neanderthals and modern humans during the ice age.[96] More than 70 such dwellings are known, mainly from the East European Plain. The bases of the huts were circular, and ranged from 8 to 24 square metres (86 to 258 sq ft). The arrangement of dwellings varied, and ranged from 1 to 20 m (3.3 to 65.6 ft) apart, depending on location. Large bones were used as foundations for the huts, tusks for the entrances, and the roofs were probably skins held in place by bones or tusks. Some huts had floors that extended 40 cm (16 in) below ground. Some of the bones used for materials may have come from mammoths killed by humans, but the state of the bones, and the fact that bones used to build a single dwelling varied by several thousands of years in age, suggests that they were collected remains of long-dead animals. Woolly mammoth bones were made into various tools, furniture, and musical instruments. Large bones, such as shoulder blades, were used to cover dead human bodies during burial.[97]
Woolly mammoth ivory was used to create art objects. Several
Several woolly mammoth specimens show evidence of being butchered by humans, which is indicated by breaks, cut marks, and associated stone tools. How much prehistoric humans relied on woolly mammoth meat is unknown, since many other large herbivores were available. Many mammoth carcasses may have been scavenged by humans rather than hunted. Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths in structures interpreted as pitfall traps. Few specimens show direct, unambiguous evidence of having been hunted by humans. A Siberian specimen with a spearhead embedded in its shoulder blade shows that a spear had been thrown at it with great force.[99]
At a site in southern Poland that contains bones from over 100 mammoths, stone spear tips have been found embedded in bones, and many stone spear points in the site were damaged from impact against mammoth bones, indicating that mammoths were the major prey for people at the time.
Extinction
Most woolly mammoth populations disappeared during the late Pleistocene and mid-
Whatever the cause, large mammals are generally more vulnerable than smaller ones due to their smaller population size and low reproduction rates.
A small population of woolly mammoths survived on
DNA sequencing of remains of two mammoths, one from Siberia 44,800 years BP and one from Wrangel Island 4,300 years BP, indicates two major population crashes: one around 280,000 years ago from which the population recovered, and a second about 12,000 years ago, near the ice age's end, from which it did not.[125] The Wrangel Island mammoths were isolated for 5000 years by rising post-ice-age sea level, and resultant inbreeding in their small population of about 300 to 1000 individuals[126] led to a 20%[125] to 30%[122] loss of heterozygosity, and a 65% loss in mitochondrial DNA diversity.[122] The population seems to have subsequently been stable, without suffering further significant loss of genetic diversity.[122][127] Genetic evidence thus implies the extinction of this final population was sudden, rather than the culmination of a gradual decline.[122]
Before their extinction, the Wrangel Island mammoths had accumulated numerous genetic defects due to their small population; in particular, a number of genes for olfactory receptors and urinary proteins became nonfunctional, possibly because they had lost their selective value on the island environment.
The disappearance coincides roughly in time with the first evidence for humans on the island.
Changes in climate shrank suitable mammoth habitat from 7,700,000 km2 (3,000,000 sq mi) 42,000 years ago to 800,000 km2 (310,000 sq mi) 6,000 years ago.
The decline of the woolly mammoth could have increased temperatures by up to 0.2 °C (0.36 °F) at high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Mammoths frequently ate birch trees, creating a grassland habitat. With the disappearance of mammoths, birch forests, which absorb more sunlight than grasslands, expanded, leading to regional warming.[138]
Fossil specimens
Woolly mammoth fossils have been found in many different types of deposits, including former rivers and lakes, and in "
Apart from frozen remains, the only soft tissue known is from a specimen that was preserved in a
The presence of undigested food in the stomach and seed pods still in the mouth of many of the specimens suggests neither starvation nor exposure is likely. The maturity of this ingested vegetation places the time of death in autumn rather than in spring, when flowers would be expected.
Frozen specimens
Between 1692 and 1806, a handful of reports of frozen mammoth remains with soft tissue were published reached Europe, though none were collected during that time.
The 1901 excavation of the "Berezovka mammoth" is the best documented of the early finds. It was discovered at the Siberian
By 1929, the remains of 34 mammoths with frozen soft tissues (skin, flesh, or organs) had been documented. Only four of them were relatively complete. Since then, about that many more have been found. In most cases, the flesh showed signs of decay before its freezing and later desiccation.[148] Since 1860, Russian authorities have offered rewards of up to 1000 ₽ for finds of frozen woolly mammoth carcasses. Often, such finds were kept secret due to superstition. Several carcasses have been lost because they were not reported, and one was fed to dogs.[139] Despite the rewards, native Yakuts were also reluctant to report mammoth finds to the authorities due to bad treatment of them in the past.[143] In more recent years, scientific expeditions have been devoted to finding carcasses instead of relying solely on chance encounters. The most famous frozen specimen from Alaska is a calf nicknamed "Effie", which was found in 1948. It consists of the head, trunk, and a fore leg, and is about 25,000 years old.[139]
In 1977, the well-preserved carcass of a seven- to eight-month-old woolly mammoth calf named "Dima" was discovered. This carcass was recovered near a tributary of the
In 1997, a piece of mammoth tusk was discovered protruding from the tundra of the Taymyr Peninsula in Siberia, Russia. In 1999, this 20,380-year-old carcass and 25 tons of surrounding sediment were transported by an Mi-26 heavy lift helicopter to an ice cave in Khatanga. The specimen was nicknamed the "Jarkov mammoth". In October 2000, the careful defrosting operations in this cave began with the use of hair dryers to keep the hair and other soft tissues intact.[150][151]
In 2002, a well-preserved carcass was discovered near the Maxunuokha River in northern Yakutia, which was recovered during three excavations. This adult male specimen was called the "Yukagir mammoth", and is estimated to have lived around 18,560 years ago, and to have been 282.9 cm (9.2 ft) tall at the shoulder, and weighed between 4 and 5 tonnes. It is one of the best-preserved mammoths ever found due to the almost complete head, covered in skin, but without the trunk. Some postcranial remains were found, some with soft tissue.[75]
In 2007, the carcass of a female calf nicknamed "Lyuba" was discovered near the Yuribey River, where it had been buried for 41,800 years.[67][152] By cutting a section through a molar and analysing its growth lines, they found that the animal had died at the age of one month.[74] The mummified calf weighed 50 kg (110 lb), was 85 cm (33 in) high and 130 cm (51 in) in length.[153][154] At the time of discovery, its eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on its body. Its organs and skin are very well preserved.[155] "Lyuba" is believed to have been suffocated by mud in a river that its herd was crossing.[67][156] After death, its body may have been colonised by bacteria that produce lactic acid, which "pickled" it, preserving the mammoth in a nearly pristine state.[67]
In 2012, a juvenile was found in Siberia, which had man-made cut marks. Scientists estimated its age at death to be 2.5 years, and nicknamed it "
In 2013, a well-preserved carcass was found on Maly Lyakhovsky Island, one of the islands in the New Siberian Islands archipelago, a female between 50 and 60 years old at the time of death. The carcass contained well-preserved muscular tissue. When it was extracted from the ice, liquid blood spilled from the abdominal cavity. The finders interpreted this as indicating woolly mammoth blood possessed antifreezing properties.[159] In 2022, a complete female baby woolly mammoth was found by a miner in the Klondike gold fields of Yukon, Canada. The specimen is estimated to have died 30,000 years ago, and was nicknamed "Nun cho ga", meaning "big baby animal" in the local Hän language. It is the best preserved woolly mammoth mummy found in North America, and was the same size as Lyuba.[160][161]
Possible revival
The existence of preserved soft tissue remains and DNA of woolly mammoths has led to the idea that the species could be resurrected by scientific means. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this.
A second method involves
Several projects are working on gradually replacing the genes in elephant cells with mammoth genes.[164][165] By 2015 and using the new CRISPR DNA editing technique, one team, led by George Church, had some woolly mammoth genes edited into the genome of an Asian elephant; focusing on cold-resistance initially,[166] the target genes are for the external ear size, subcutaneous fat, hemoglobin, and hair attributes.[167][168] If any method is ever successful, a suggestion has been made to introduce the hybrids to a wildlife reserve in Siberia called the Pleistocene Park.[169]
Some researchers question the ethics of such recreation attempts. In addition to the technical problems, not much habitat is left that would be suitable for elephant-mammoth hybrids. Because the species was social and
Cultural significance
The woolly mammoth has remained culturally significant long after its extinction.
The
Siberian mammoth ivory is reported to have been exported to Russia and Europe in the 10th century. The first Siberian ivory to reach western Europe was brought to London in 1611. When Russia occupied Siberia, the ivory trade grew and it became a widely exported commodity, with huge amounts being excavated. From the 19th century and onwards, woolly mammoth ivory became a highly prized commodity, used as raw material for many products. Today, it is still in great demand as a replacement for the now-banned export of elephant ivory, and has been referred to as "white gold".[183]
Local dealers estimate that 10 million mammoths are still frozen in Siberia, and conservationists have suggested that this could help save the living species of elephants from extinction. Elephants are hunted by poachers for their ivory, but if this could instead be supplied by the already extinct mammoths, the demand could instead be met by these. Trade in elephant ivory has been forbidden in most places following the 1989
Stories abound about frozen woolly mammoth meat that was consumed once defrosted, especially that of the "Berezovka mammoth", but most of these are considered dubious. The carcasses were in most cases decayed, and the stench so unbearable that only wild scavengers and the dogs accompanying the finders showed any interest in the flesh. Such meat apparently was once recommended against illness in China, and Siberian natives have occasionally cooked the meat of frozen carcasses they discovered.
Alleged survival
There have been occasional claims that the woolly mammoth is not extinct and that small, isolated herds might survive in the vast and sparsely inhabited tundra of the Northern Hemisphere. In the 19th century, several reports of "large shaggy beasts" were passed on to the Russian authorities by Siberian tribesmen, but no scientific proof ever surfaced. A French chargé d'affaires working in Vladivostok, M. Gallon, said in 1946 that in 1920, he had met a Russian fur-trapper who claimed to have seen living giant, furry "elephants" deep into the taiga.[189] Due to the large area of Siberia, the possibility that woolly mammoths survived into more recent times cannot be completely ruled out, but evidence indicates that they became extinct thousands of years ago. These natives likely had gained their knowledge of woolly mammoths from carcasses they encountered and that this is the source for their legends of the animal.[190]
In the late 19th century, rumours existed about surviving mammoths in Alaska.
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Bibliography
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External links
- Data related to Mammuthus primigenius at Wikispecies
- Natural History Museum: "The last of the mammoths" – three-minute video about the extinction of the woolly mammoth, presented by Adrian Lister
- National Geographic: "Mammoth tusk treasure hunt" – two-minute video about mammoth tusk collecting in modern Siberia