World history (field)
This article possibly contains original research. (May 2022) |
World history or global history as a field of historical study examines history from a global perspective. It emerged centuries ago; leading practitioners have included Voltaire (1694–1778), Hegel (1770–1831), Karl Marx (1818–1883), Oswald Spengler (1880–1936), and Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975). The field became much more active (in terms of university teaching, text books, scholarly journals, and academic associations) in the late 20th century.
It is not to be confused with
Periodisation
World history in the Western tradition is commonly divided into three parts, viz.
Establishment and perimeters of the field
"World history is not a thing, but an activity, and various physical forms of expression such as lectures, books, journal papers and classroom lessons are criteria for it. An historian, for instance, may point to a book and say 'that's a world history', even if they cannot elucidate why. 'World history' should thus be defined through an examination of the various forms of expression taken as its criteria, not apart form or prior to them."
– Marnie Hughes-Warrington (2005)[5]
The advent of world history as a distinct academic field of study can be traced to the 1960s, but the pace quickened in the 1980s.[8][9] A key step was the creation of the World History Association and graduate programs at a handful of universities. Over the next decades scholarly publications, professional and academic organizations, and graduate programs in World History proliferated. World History has often displaced Western Civilization in the required curriculum of American high schools and universities, and is supported by new textbooks with a world history approach.
World history attempts to recognize and address two structures that have profoundly shaped professional history-writing:
- A tendency to use current nation-statesto set the boundaries and agendas of studies of the past.
- A deep legacy of Eurocentric assumptions (found especially, but not only, in Western history-writing).
Thus World History tends to study networks, connections, and systems that cross traditional boundaries of historical study like linguistic, cultural, and national borders. World History is often concerned to explore social dynamics that have led to large-scale changes in human society, such as
Organizations
- The H-World website and online network[10] is used among some practitioners of world history, and allows discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.
- The International Society for the Comparative Study of Civilizations (ISCSC) approaches world history from the standpoint of comparative civilizations. Founded at a conference in 1961 in Salzburg, Austria, that was attended by Othmar Anderlie, Pitirim Sorokin, and Arnold J. Toynbee, this is an international association of scholars that publishes a journal, Comparative Civilization Review, and hosts an annual meeting in cities around the world.
- The Journal of Global History is a scholarly journal established in 2006 and is published by Cambridge University Press.
- The World History Association (WHA) was established in 1982, and is predominantly an American phenomenon.[11] Since 1990, it publishes the Journal of World History on a quarterly basis.[12]
History
Pre-modern
The study of world history, as distinct from national history, has existed in many world cultures. However, early forms of world history were not truly global and were limited to only the regions known by the historian.
In Ancient China, Chinese world history, that of China and the surrounding people of East Asia was based on the dynastic cycle articulated by Sima Qian c. 100 BC. Sima Qian's model is based on the Mandate of Heaven. Rulers rise when they united China, then are overthrown when such dynasty became corrupt.[13] Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Sima Qian's model still dominates scholarship, although the dynastic cycle is no longer used for modern Chinese history.[14]
In Ancient Greece, Herodotus (5th century BC), as the founder of Greek historiography,[15] presents discussions of the customs, geography, and history of Mediterranean peoples, particularly the Egyptians. His contemporary Thucydides rejected Herodotus's all-embracing approach to history, offering instead a more precise, sharply focused monograph, dealing not with vast empires over the centuries but with 27 years of war between Athens and Sparta. In Rome, the vast, patriotic history of Rome by Livy (59 BC – 17 AD) approximated Herodotean inclusiveness;[16] Polybius (c. 200 – c. 118 BC) aspired to combine the logical rigor of Thucydides with the scope of Herodotus.[17]
One Muslim scholar, Ibn Khaldun (1332–1409) broke with traditionalism and offered a model of historical change in Muqaddimah, an exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world.[19]
Early modern
During the Renaissance in Europe, history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called Philosophia Historiae anymore, but merely history (Historia). Voltaire, in the 18th century, attempted to revolutionize the study of world history. First, Voltaire concluded that the traditional study of history was flawed. The Christian Church, one of the most powerful entities in his time, had presented a framework for studying history. Voltaire, when writing History of Charles XII (1731) and The Age of Louis XIV (1751), instead choose to focus on economics, politics, and culture.[20] These aspects of history were mostly unexplored by his contemporaries and would each develop into their sections of world history. Above all else, Voltaire regarded truth as the most essential part of recording world history. Nationalism and religion only subtracted from objective truth, so Voltaire freed himself for their influence when he recorded history.[21]
Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) in Italy wrote Scienza Nuova seconda (The New Science) in 1725, which argued history as the expression of human will and deeds. He thought that men are historical entities and that human nature changes over time. Each epoch should be seen as a whole in which all aspects of culture—art, religion, philosophy, politics, and economics—are interrelated (a point developed later by Oswald Spengler). Vico showed that myth, poetry, and art are entry points to discovering the true spirit of a culture. Vico outlined a conception of historical development in which great cultures, like Rome, undergo cycles of growth and decline. His ideas were out of fashion during the Enlightenment but influenced the Romantic historians after 1800.
A major theoretical foundation for world history was given by German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who saw the modern Prussian state as the latest (though often confused with the highest) stage of world development.
G.W.F. Hegel developed three lenses through which he believed world history could be viewed. Documents produced during a historical period, such as journal entries and contractual agreements, were considered by Hegel to be part of Original History. These documents are produced by a person enveloped within a culture, making them conduits of vital information but also limited in their contextual knowledge. Documents which pertain to Hegel's Original History are classified by modern historians as primary sources.[22]
Reflective History, Hegel's second lens, are documents written with some temporal distance separating the event which is discussed in academic writing. What limited this lens, according to Hegel, was the imposition of the writer's own cultural values and views on the historical event. This criticism of Reflective History was later formalized by Anthropologist Franz Boa and coined as Cultural relativism by Alain Locke. Both of these lenses were considered to be partially flawed by Hegel.[23]
Hegel termed the lens which he advocated to view world history through as Philosophical History. To view history through this lens, one must analyze events, civilizations, and periods objectively. When done in this fashion, the historian can then extract the prevailing theme from their studies. This lens differs from the rest because it is void of any cultural biases and takes a more analytical approach to history. World History can be a broad topic, so focusing on extracting the most valuable information from certain periods may be the most beneficial approach. This third lens, as did Hegel's definitions of the other two, affected the study of history in the early modern period and our contemporary period.[24]
Another early modern historian was Adam Ferguson. Ferguson's main contribution to the study of world history was his An Essay on the History of Civil Society (1767).[25] According to Ferguson, world history was a combination of two forms of history. One was natural history; the aspects of our world which God created. The other, which was more revolutionary, was social history. For him, social history was the progress humans made towards fulfilling God's plan for humanity. He believed that progress, which could be achieved through individuals pursuing commercial success, would bring us closer to a perfect society; but we would never reach one.[26] However, he also theorized that complete dedication to commercial success could lead to societal collapses—like what happened in Rome—because people would lose morality. Through this lens, Ferguson viewed world history as humanity's struggle to reach an ideal society.[27]
Henry Home, Lord Kames was a philosopher during the Enlightenment and contributed to the study of world history. In his major historical work, Sketches on the History of Man, Kames outlined the four stages of human history which he observed.[28] The first and most primitive stage was small hunter-gatherer groups. Then, to form larger groups, humans transitioned into the second stage when they began to domesticate animals. The third stage was the development of agriculture. This new technology established trade and higher levels of cooperation amongst sizable groups of people. With the gathering of people into agricultural villages, laws and social obligations needed to be developed so a form of order could be maintained. The fourth, and final stage, involved humans moving into market towns and seaports where agriculture was not the focus. Instead, commerce and other forms of labor arouse in a society. By defining the stages of human history, Homes influenced his successors. He also contributed to the development of other studies such as sociology and anthropology.[29]
The
Regna Darnell and Frederic Gleach argue that, in the Soviet Union, the Marxian theory of history was the only accepted orthodoxy, and stifled research into other schools of thought on history.[37] However, adherents of Marx's theories argue that Stalin distorted Marxism.[38]
Contemporary
World history became a popular genre in the 20th century with
Spengler's Decline of the West (2 vol 1919–1922) compared nine organic cultures: Egyptian (3400–1200 BC), Indian (1500–1100 BC), Chinese (1300 BC–AD 200), Classical (1100–400 BC), Byzantine (AD 300–1100), Aztec (AD 1300–1500), Arabian (AD 300–1250), Mayan (AD 600–960), and Western (AD 900–1900). His book was a success among intellectuals worldwide as it predicted the disintegration of European and American civilization after a violent "age of Caesarism", arguing by detailed analogies with other civilizations. It deepened the post-World War I pessimism in Europe, and was warmly received by intellectuals in China, India, and Latin America who hoped his predictions of the collapse of European empires would soon come true.[42]
In 1936–1954, Toynbee's ten-volume A Study of History came out in three separate installments. He followed Spengler in taking a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations. Toynbee said they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. Toynbee rejected Spengler's biological model of civilizations as organisms with a typical life span of 1,000 years. Like Sima Qian, Toynbee explained decline as due to their moral failure. Many readers rejoiced in his implication (in vols. 1–6) that only a return to some form of Catholicism could halt the breakdown of western civilization which began with the Reformation. Volumes 7–10, published in 1954, abandoned the religious message, and his popular audience shrunk while scholars picked apart his mistakes.[43]
History education
United States
As early as 1884, the American Historical Association advocated the study of the past on a world scale.
In related disciplines, such as art history and architectural history, global perspectives have been promoted as well. In schools of architecture in the U.S., the National Architectural Accrediting Board now requires that schools teach history that includes a non-west or global perspective. This reflects a decade-long effort to move past the standard Euro-centric approach that had dominated the field.[48]
Historiography
Universal history is at once something more and something less than the aggregate of the national histories to which we are accustomed, that it must be approached in a different spirit and dealt with in a different manner
— H. G. Wells, The Outline of History
Rankean historical positivism
The roots of
Modernization theory
According to Francis Fukuyama, modernization theory is the "last significant Universal History" written in the 20th century.[51] This theory draws on Marx, Weber, and Durkheim. Talcott Parsons's Societies. Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (1966) is a key statement of this view of world history.[52]
African and world history
In recent years, the relationship between African and world history has shifted rapidly from one of antipathy to one of engagement and synthesis. Reynolds (2007) surveys the relationship between African and world histories, with an emphasis on the tension between the area studies paradigm and the growing world-history emphasis on connections and exchange across regional boundaries. A closer examination of recent exchanges and debates over the merits of this exchange is also featured. Reynolds sees the relationship between African and world history as a measure of the changing nature of historical inquiry over the past century.[53]
See also
- Historic recurrence
- History of globalization
- Journal of Global History
- Journal of World History
- Political history of the world
- Bibliography of world history (field)
References
- ^ J. Laurence Hare, and Jack Wells, "Promising the World: Surveys, Curricula, and the Challenge of Global History," History Teacher, 48 (Feb. 2015) pp: 371-88.
- ^ Cottinger 1884, p. 1.
- ^ a b Jaspers 1949.
- ^ Eisenstadt 1986.
- ^ Hughes-Warrington 2005, p. 3.
- (p. 1).
- ^ Hughes-Warrington 2005, p. 5.
- ^ (p. 2).
- ISBN 978-0-8156-3171-2. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
- ^ see H-World Archived 2011-03-10 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "History Association - Mission".[permanent dead link]
- ^ see JWH Website Archived 2008-05-12 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian: Q1in Dynasty (3rd ed. 1995) excerpt and text search Archived 2020-11-19 at the Wayback Machine; Burton Watson, Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian of China (1958)
- ^ S. Y. Teng, "Chinese Historiography in the Last Fifty Years," The Far Eastern Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Feb. 1949), pp. 131–156 in JSTOR Archived 2018-08-08 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ K.H. Waters, Herodotus the Historian (1985)
- ^ Patrick G. Walsh, Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods (1961)
- ^ Frank W. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius, (3 vols. 1957–82)
- ^ Elliot, H. M. (Henry Miers), Sir; John Dowson. "10. Jámi'u-t Tawáríkh, of Rashid-al-Din". The History of India, as Told by Its Historians. The Muhammadan Period (Vol 3.). London: Trübner & Co.. https://archive.org/stream/cu31924073036737#page/n15/mode/2up.
- ^ Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History ed. by N. J. Dawood, Bruce Lawrence, and Franz Rosenthal (2004) excerpt and text search
- ^ "Voltaire". Biography. Archived from the original on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2018-07-24.
- ^ Shank, J.B. (2015), "Voltaire", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2015 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, archived from the original on 2019-03-18, retrieved 2018-07-24
- ^ Little, Daniel (2017), "Philosophy of History", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2017 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, archived from the original on 2019-03-18, retrieved 2018-07-24
- ^ Nicholas, Mowad (2010). The Soul and the Body in Hegel's Anthropology. Loyola University Chicago.
- JSTOR 27744789.
- ^ Ferguson, Adam. An Essay on the History of Civil Society. (1767).
- ^ Hamowy, Ronald (1969). The Social and Political Philosophy of Adam Ferguson – A Commentary on His Essay on The History of Civil Society. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago.
- ^ "Adam Ferguson". www.d.umn.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-07-11. Retrieved 2018-07-24.
- ^ "Henry Home, Lord Kames". www.hetwebsite.net. Archived from the original on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2018-07-24.
- ^ "Kames on Progress and Providence - Online Library of Liberty". oll.libertyfund.org. Archived from the original on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2018-07-24.
- ^ See, in particular, Marx and Engels, The German Ideology Archived 2017-10-22 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Marx makes no claim to have produced a master key to history. Historical materialism is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself" (Marx, Karl: Letter to editor of the Russian paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym, 1877). His ideas, he explains, are based on a concrete study of the actual conditions that pertained in Europe.
- ^ Marx, Early writings, Penguin, 1975, p. 426.
- ^ Charles Taylor, “Critical Notice”, Canadian Journal of Philosophy 10 (1980), p. 330.
- ^ "Critique of the Gotha Programme". July 5, 2003. Archived from the original on 2003-07-05.
- ^ "The Civil War in France". July 5, 2003. Archived from the original on 2003-07-05.
- ^
ISBN 9780226288819. Retrieved 2012-12-29.
Marxists sometimes distinguish between 'personal property' and 'private property,' the former consisting in consumer goods directly used by the owner, while the latter is private ownership of the major means of production.
- ISBN 978-0803266636.
- ^ "How Stalin Distorted Marxism » pa". Archived from the original on 2015-03-18. Retrieved 2015-03-24.
- ^ Bradley J. Birzer, Sanctifying the World: The Augustinian Life and Mind of Christopher Dawson (2007)
- ^ Michael P. Federici, Eric Voegelin: The Restoration of Order (2002)
- ^ Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power: Volume 1, A History of Power from the Beginning to AD 1760 (1986) excerpt and text search
- Ebsco
- ^ William H. McNeill, Arnold J. Toynbee a Life (1989)
- ^ William H. McNeill, "The Changing Shape of World History." History and Theory 1995 34(2): 8–26.
- ^ Gilbert Allardyce, "Toward world history: American historians and the coming of the world history course." Journal of World History 1.1 (1990): 23-76.
- ISBN 978-0-673-38867-4.
- ^ Patrick Manning, Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past (2003); Ross E. Dunn, ed., The New World History: A Teacher's Companion. (2000).
- ^ See Points 8 and 9. http://www.naab.org/adaview.aspx?pageid=120 Archived 2014-03-18 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Meer 2011, p. 4.
- ^ Yerxa 2009, p. 1ff.
- ^ Fukuyama 1992, p. 68-69.
- ^ Parsons 1966.
- ^ Jonathan T. Reynolds, "Africa and World History: from Antipathy to Synergy." History Compass 2007 5(6): 1998–2013. ISSN 1478-0542 Fulltext: [1. History Compass]
Works cited
- Cottinger, H. M. (1884). Elements of universal history for higher institutes in republics and for self-instruction.
- ISBN 978-0887060960.
- Fukuyama, Francis (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. New York: The Free Press.
- ISBN 9780230523401. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
- Jaspers, Karl (1949). The Origin and Goal of History. London Yale University Press.
- Meer, Zubin (2011). Individualism: The Cultural Logic of Modernity. Lexington Books.
- Parsons, Talcott (1966). Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
- Yerxa, Donald A. (2009). Recent Themes in World History and the History of the West: Historians in Conversation. Univ of South Carolina Press.
Further reading
- Manvir Singh, "Genghis the Good: Nomadic warriors like the Mongol hordes, scholars argue, built our world", The New Yorker, 1 & 8 January 2024, pp. 58–61. "Historians have worked to show that, in Sattin's words, 'the nomad story is neither less wonderful nor less significant than ours.' But we'll still be treating ourselves as the measure of everything unless we learn to revise our sense of significance. This may be the greatest gift a more global history offers us: greatness redefined." (p. 61.)