World peace
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World peace is the concept of an ideal state of peace within and among all people and nations on Planet Earth. Different cultures, religions, philosophies, and organizations have varying concepts on how such a state would come about.
Various religious and secular organizations have the stated aim of achieving world peace through addressing human rights, technology, education, engineering, medicine, or diplomacy used as an end to all forms of fighting. Since 1945, the United Nations and the five permanent members of its Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have operated under the aim to resolve conflicts without war. Nonetheless, nations have entered numerous military conflicts since then.
Theories
Many theories as to how world peace could be achieved have been proposed. Several of these are listed below.
Capitalism peace theory
Capitalist, or commercial peace, forms one of the three planks of Kantian peace, together with democratic peace theory and institutionalist arguments for peace. Although the evidence is inconclusive, various scholars have argued for capitalist peace.[1] For instance, in her essay "The Roots of War", Ayn Rand held that the major wars of history were started by the more controlled economies of the time against the freer ones and that capitalism gave mankind the longest period of peace in history—a period during which there were no wars involving the entire civilized world—from the end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, with the exceptions of the Franco-Prussian War (1870), the Spanish–American War (1898), and the American Civil War (1861–1865).[citation needed]
Cobdenism
Proponents of
However, free trade does not prevent a nation from establishing some sort of emergency plan to become temporarily self-sufficient in case of war or that a nation could simply acquire what it needs from a different nation. A good example of this is World War I, during which both Britain and Germany became partially self-sufficient. This is particularly important because Germany had no plan for creating a war economy.[citation needed]
Democratic peace theory
Proponents of democratic peace theory, developed mainly in the 1960s but relying in part on eighteenth century Kantian theory, and frequently espoused by Western politicians, claim that strong empirical evidence exists that democracies never or rarely wage war against each other.[2][3][4][5] However, several wars between democracies have taken place, historically, such as the Kargil War. Relevant issues of debate include whether sufficient data is available to statistically prove the theory and whether peace results in democracy (territorial peace theory) or vice versa.[citation needed]
Economic norms theory
Michael Mousseau's economic norms theory links economic conditions with institutions of governance and conflict, distinguishing personal clientelist economies from impersonal market-oriented ones, identifying the latter with permanent peace within and between nations.[6][7]
Throughout most of human history, societies have been based on personal relations: individuals in groups know each other and exchange favours. Today in most lower-income societies hierarchies of groups distribute wealth based on personal relationships among group leaders, a process often linked with clientelism and corruption. Michael Mousseau argues that in this kind of socio-economy conflict is always present, latent or overt, because individuals depend on their groups for physical and economic security and are thus loyal to their groups rather than their states, and because groups are in a constant state of conflict over access to state coffers. Through processes of bounded rationality, people are conditioned towards strong in-group identities and are easily swayed to fear outsiders, psychological predispositions that make possible sectarian violence, genocide, and terrorism.[8]
Market-oriented socio-economics are integrated not with personal ties but the impersonal force of the market where most individuals are economically dependent on trusting strangers in contracts enforced by the state. This creates loyalty to a state that enforces the rule of law and contracts impartially and reliably and provides equal protection in the freedom to contract – that is, liberal democracy. Wars cannot happen within or between nations with market-integrated economies because war requires the harming of others, and in these kinds of economies, everyone is always economically better off when others in the market are also better off, not worse off. Rather than fight, citizens in market-oriented socio-economies care deeply about everyone's rights and welfare, so they demand economic growth at home and economic cooperation and human rights abroad. Nations with market-oriented socio-economies tend to agree on global issues[8] and not a single fatality has occurred in any dispute between them.[6]
Economic norms theory should not be confused with classical liberal theory. The latter assumes that markets are natural and that freer markets promote wealth.[9] In contrast, Economic norms theory shows how market-contracting is a learned norm, and state spending, regulation, and redistribution are necessary to ensure that almost everyone can participate in the "social market" economy, which is in everyone's interests.[citation needed]
Marxism: World peace via world revolution
According to the
Mutual assured destruction
Peace through strength
The term is traced back to the Roman Emperor Hadrian (reigned CE 117 – 138), but the concept is older. In the Indian epic Ramayana (7th to 4th centuries BCE) Lord Rama is quoted as saying "Bhay Bin Hoye na Preet", meaning once prayers for peace fail, one may need to instill fear to bring peace. In 1943, at the peak of World War II, the founder of the Paneuropean Union, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, argued that after the war the United States (U.S.) was bound to take "command of the skies" to ensure the lasting world peace:
But the inauguration of such a glorious century of peace demands from us abandonment of old conceptions of peace. The new Angel of Peace must no longer be pictured as a charming but helpless lady with an olive branch in her hand, but like the Goddess of Justice with a balance in her left and a sword in her right; or like the Archangel Michael, with a fiery sword and wings of steel, fighting the devil to restore and protect the peace of heaven.[13]
In fact, near the entrance to the headquarters of the U.S. Strategic Air Command at Offutt Air Force Base stands a large sign with a SAC emblem and its motto: "Peace is our profession."[14] The motto "was a staggering paradox that was also completely accurate".[15] One SAC Bomber—Convair B-36—is called Peacemaker and one inter-continental missile-LGM-118-Peacekeeper.
In 2016, former U.S. Secretary of Defense Ash Carter envisaged that the re-balance to the Asia-Pacific will make the region "peaceful" through "strength":
You, and your fellow soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines will solidify the rebalance, you will make this network work, and you will help the Asia-Pacific... realize a principled and peaceful and prosperous future. And play the role only America can play... You'll do so with strength.[16]
Introduction to US National Security and Defense Strategies of 2018 states: The US force posture combined with the allies will "preserve peace through strength". The document proceeds to detail what "achieving peace through strength requires".[17]
Territorial peace theory
Proponents of the territorial peace theory claim that countries with stable borders are likely to develop democracy, while wars and territorial threats foster authoritarian attitudes and a disregard for democracy.[18] Increasing attention has been paid to the theory since the early 2000s, and it has increasingly informed democratic peace theory and been espoused in the cause of peacebuilding and international relations. Proponents of democratic peace theory counter argue that stable borders resulting from dispute arbitration or negotiation rather than force via autocracy are more likely to be obtained by democratic states. Efforts are underway to synthesize the two theories.[19]
Efforts
United Nations Charter and international law
Christianity
The basic Christian ideal specifies that peace can only come by the Word and love of God, which is perfectly demonstrated in the life of Christ:
Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid.
As
However, not all Christians expect a lasting world peace on this earth:
Do not suppose that I have come to bring peace to the earth. I did not come to bring peace, but a sword. For I have come to turn a man against his father, a daughter against her mother, a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law—a man's enemies will be the members of his own household.
Many Christians believe that world peace is expected to be manifest upon the "new earth" that is promised in Christian scripture such as Revelation 21.
The
Pacifist religious groups that are related to Christianity include Quakers, the Amish, and Mennonites.[36] These groups are known for advocating religious nonviolence, and their adherents are often conscientious objectors.[37]
Hinduism
Traditionally,
Islam
According to Islamic eschatology, the whole world will be united under the leadership of imam Mahdi. At that time love, justice and peace will be so abundant that the world will be in the likeness of paradise.
Judaism
Judaism is not a pacifist religion.
Specifically, in
For Torah will go forth from Zion and the Word of HaShem from Jerusalem. And He will judge between the nations and decide disputes for many peoples, and they will beat their
swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift the sword against nation, neither will they learn war anymore.
Jainism
Sikhism
The Sikh religion preaches that peace comes from God. However, pacifism is not absolute in Sikh religion, and Sikhs have taken military action against oppression.[44]
Sikh people believe that
See also
- Amity-enmity complex
- Armistice
- Ceasefire
- Family Federation for World Peace and Unification
- Global ceasefire
- Global peace system
- Global policeman
- Inner peace
- Interfaith dialogue
- International community
- International human rights law
- International security
- International Day of Non-Violence
- List of anti-war organizations
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of ongoing military conflicts
- List of peace activists
- Nobel Peace Prize
- Nonkilling
- Nonviolence
- Pacifism
- Peace movement
- Peace One Day
- Peace symbols
- Peace treaty
- Peace walk
- Perpetual peace
- Philosophy of happiness
- Preamble to the United Nations Charter
- Religion and peacebuilding
- University for Peace
- Utopian and dystopian fiction
- War resister
- War Resisters' International
- World government
- World Peace Council
- World Peace Foundation
- World union for peace and fundamental human rights and the rights of peoples
References
- ISBN 978-0-19-998175-5. Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2016.
- ^ "Ray", International relations, USA: M Tholyoke, archived from the original on 17 February 2008.
- ^ Smith, "Democracy & peace", Politics (PDF), USA: New York University.
- ^ Müller, Harald and Jonas Wolff (September 2004). "Dyadic Democratic Peace Strikes Back". 5th Pan-European International Relations ConferenceThe Hague. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
- ^ Owen, John M IV (1 November 2005), "Fareview essay", ForeignAffairs.org, Iraq and the democratic peace, archived from the original on 21 December 2005.
- ^ a b Mousseau, Michael (Spring 2009), "The Social Market Roots of Democratic Peace", International Security, vol. 33, pp. 52–86.
- ^ ———————— (Winter 2002–2003), "Market Civilization and its Clash with Terror", International Security, vol. 27, pp. 5–29.
- ^ .
- ^ Friedman, Milton. 1970. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago.
- ^ Trotsky, Leon (1914), War and the International, Marxists.
- ^ "Mutual Assured Destruction", Strategy, Nuclear files.
- ^ Parrington, Col. Alan J (Winter 1997), "Mutually Assured Destruction Revisited, Strategic Doctrine in Question", Airpower Journal, USA: Air Force, archived from the original on 20 June 2015.
- ^ Crusade for Pan-Europe, (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1943), p 299, 305.
- ^ Cited in Thomas S. Power, Design for Survival, (New York: Coward McCann, 1964), p 139.
- ^ Phillip S. Meilinger, Bomber: The Formation and Early History of Strategic Air Command, (Alabama: Air University Press, 2012), p XVIII.
- ^ ""The Future of the Rebalance: Enabling Security in the Vital & Dynamic Asia-Pacific", Secretary of Defense Speech, September 29, 2016, Washington: Department of Defense".
- ^ "Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy of the United States of America" (PDF). Retrieved 22 November 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-19-022863-7.
- S2CID 156163897.
- ^ "International Day of Peace, 21 September". www.un.org. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
- ^ "To the General Assembly of the United Nations by Albert Einstein". Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
- ^ Russell, Bertrand (1936). Which Way to Peace? (Part 12). M. Joseph Ltd. p. 173.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-933567-16-7.
- ^ "Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 1 July 2023 – via afb.org.
- ^ "Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 3 July 2023 – via afb.org.
- ^ "Als Interlaken die heimliche Welthauptstadt war". Berner Zeitung (in German). 29 August 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
- ^ PANDIT, M. P. (1979). WORLD UNION (JANUARY-DECEMBER) 1979. WORLD UNION INTERNATIONAL, INDIA. p. 107.
- ^ a b "Global Strategies & Solutions: Preparing earth constitution". The Encyclopedia of World Problems. Union of International Associations. Retrieved 15 July 2023 – via uia.org.
- ^ "Provisional World Parliament". The Encyclopedia of World Problems. Union of International Associations. Retrieved 18 July 2023 – via uia.org.
- ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
- ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.
- ^ Buddharakkhita, Acharya. "The Dhammapada: The Buddha's Path of Wisdom". accesstoinsight.org. Access to Insight Organisation. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
- ^ Suggestion For World Peace Meditation Archived 24 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Mount Ecclesia, CA, USA
- ^ World Peace Meditation: 2017 Devotional Services Dates and Times Archived 6 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Mount Ecclesia, CA, USA. Updt: 2023 dates
- ^ Heindel, Max. Letters to Students: LETTER NO. 92, July 1918. TRF, CA, USA (various editions/publishers)
- ^ "Ukraine offers a middle path between just war and pacifism". Religion News Service. 14 March 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
- ^ "The military is the reason behind the 'Amish Beard'". We Are The Mighty. 31 December 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
- ^ "Dharmic Wisdom Quotes – Page 3".
- ^ "What does pacifism mean in Judaism? - War and peace - GCSE Religious Studies Revision". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
- ^ "Judaism 101: Mashiach: The Messiah".
- ^ Rambam, Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot Melachim, ch. 11–12
- ^ Titze, Kurt, Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Motilal Banarsidass, 1998
- ^ Useful instructions, In Matter religious, moral and others by Motilal M. Munishi, 1904
- ^ "BBC - Religions - Sikhism: War". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
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External links
- Association Bernadette Strebel World Peace
- Global Union of Scientists for Peace
- The Mount Zion World Peace Center
- Team World Peace
- The Castle of Peace
- The Resolutions
- UN Resolution re: Poverty
- US Institute of Peace
- Waging Peace
- World Peace Group
- World Peace in Progress
- World Peace Marathon
- World Peace Tracts
- World Peace writings
- Belno M. Whelden Letter on World Trusteeship of Life and Means of Life Manuscript (1945) at Dartmouth College Library