Xianbei

Warring States period's Chinese literature contains early mentions of Xianbei, as in the poem "The Great Summons" (Chinese: 大招; pinyin: Dà zhāo) in the anthology Verses of Chu^[23] and possibly the chapter "Discourses of Jin 8" in Discourses of the States.^[24][25][a]

When the Donghu "Eastern Barbarians" were defeated by Modu Chanyu around 208 BC, the Donghu splintered into the Xianbei and Wuhuan.^[39] According to the Book of the Later Han, "the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan".^[40]

The first significant contact the Xianbei had with the Han dynasty was in 41 and 45, when they joined the Wuhuan and Xiongnu in raiding Han territory.^[41]

In 49, the governor Ji Tong convinced the Xianbei chieftain Pianhe to turn on the Xiongnu with rewards for each Xiongnu head they collected.^[41] In 54, Yuchouben and Mantou of the Xianbei paid tribute to Emperor Guangwu of Han.^[42]

In 58, the Xianbei chieftain Pianhe attacked and killed Xinzhiben, a Wuhuan leader causing trouble in Yuyang Commandery.^[43]

In 85, the Xianbei secured an alliance with the

In 87, the Xianbei attacked the Xiongnu chanyu Youliu and killed him. They flayed him and his followers and took the skins back as trophies.^[44]

Xianbei Confederation

After the downfall of the Xiongnu, the Xianbei established their confederation in Mongolia starting from AD 93.

In 109, the Wuhuan and Xianbei attacked

The Xianbei under Qizhijian raided Han territory four times from 121 to 138. .[46] In 145, the Xianbei raided Dai Commandery.^[47]

Around 155, the northern Xiongnu were "crushed and subjugated" by the Xianbei. Their chief, known by the Chinese as Tanshihuai, then advanced upon and defeated the Wusun of the Ili region by 166. Under Tanshihuai, the Xianbei extended their territory from the Ussuri to the Caspian Sea. He divided the Xianbei empire into three sections, each ruled by twenty clans. Tanshihuai then formed an alliance with the southern Xiongnu to attack Shaanxi and Gansu. Han dynasty successfully repulsed their attacks in 158, 177.^[48][49][50]

In 177 AD, Xia Yu,

Three Kingdoms

The loose Xianbei confederacy lacked the organization of the Xiongnu but was highly aggressive until the death of their khan Tanshihuai in 182.

Kebineng was from a minor Xianbei tribe. He rose to power west of Dai Commandery by taking in a number of Chinese refugees, who helped him drill his soldiers and make weapons. After the defeat of the Wuhuan in 207, he also sent tribute to Cao Cao, and even provided assistance against the rebel Tian Yin. In 218 he allied himself to the Wuhuan rebel Nengchendi but they were heavily defeated and forced back across the frontier by Cao Zhang. In 220, he acknowledged Cao Pi as emperor of Cao Wei. Eventually, he turned on the Wei for frustrating his advances on another Xianbei khan, Sui. Kebineng conducted raids on Cao Wei before he was killed in 235, after which his confederacy disintegrated.^[57]

Many of the Xianbei tribes migrated south and settled on the borders of the Wei-Jin dynasties. In 258 Tuoba Liwei's people settled in Yanmen Commandery.^[7] The Yuwen tribe settled between the Luan River and Liucheng. The Murong and Duan tribes became vassals of the Sima clan. An offshoot of the Murong tribe moved west into northern Qinghai and mixed with the native Qiang people, becoming Tuyuhun.^[41] The Qifu tribe initially settled around the Yellow River in Ningxia before moving inwards to Longxi Commandery. A branch of the Tuoba, the Tufa tribe, settled in the Hexi corridor. In 270, their chieftain, Tufa Shujineng, became the leader of a multi-ethnic rebellion against the Jin dynasty in Qin and Liang provinces but was defeated in 279 by Ma Long.^[48]

Sixteen Kingdoms, Nirun and Northern Wei

The third century saw both the fragmentation of the Xianbei in 235 and the branching out of the various Xianbei tribes.

Around 308 or 330 AD, the Rouran tribe was founded by Mugulü, but formed by his son, Cheluhui.^[58] The Xianbei tribes

The Xianbei founded several of the

Sinicization and assimilation

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei established a policy of systematic sinicization that was continued by his successors. Xianbei traditions were largely abandoned. The royal family took the sinicization a step further by changing their family name to Yuan. Marriages to Han elite families were encouraged.

The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended, Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi (司馬楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong. Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.^[70]

In 534, the Northern Wei split into an

In the West, the Xianbei kingdom of Tuyuhun remained independent until it was defeated by the Tibetan Empire in 670. After the fall of the kingdom, the Xianbei people underwent a diaspora over a vast territory that stretched from the northwest into central and eastern parts of China. Murong Nuohebo led the Tuyuhun people eastward into central China, where they settled in modern Yinchuan, Ningxia.

Art

Art of the Xianbei portrayed their nomadic lifestyle and consisted primarily of metalwork and figurines. The style and subjects of Xianbei art were influenced by a variety of influences, and ultimately, the Xianbei were known for emphasizing unique nomadic motifs in artistic advancements such as leaf headdresses, crouching and geometricized animals depictions, animal pendant necklaces, and metal openwork.^[75]

Leaf headdresses

The leaf headdresses were very characteristic of Xianbei culture, and they are found especially in Murong Xianbei tombs. Their corresponding ornamental style also links the Xianbei to Bactria. These gold hat ornaments represented trees and antlers and, in Chinese, they are referred to as buyao ("step sway") since the thin metal leaves move when the wearer moves. Sun Guoping first uncovered this type of artifact, and defined three main styles: "Blossoming Tree" (huashu), which is mounted on the front of a cap near the forehead and has one or more branches with hanging leaves that are circle or droplet shaped, "Blossoming Top" (dinghua), which is worn on top of the head and resembles a tree or animal with many leaf pendants, and the rare "Blossoming Vine" (huaman), which consists of "gold strips interwoven with wires with leaves."^[76] Leaf headdresses were made with hammered gold and decorated by punching out designs and hanging the leaf pendants with wire. The exact origin, use, and wear of these headdresses is still being investigated and determined. However, headdresses similar to those later also existed and were worn by women in the courts.^[75][76]

Animal iconography

Another key form of Xianbei art is animal iconography, which was implemented primarily in metalwork. The Xianbei stylistically portrayed crouching animals in geometricized, abstracted, repeated forms, and distinguished their culture and art by depicting animal predation and same-animal combat. Typically, sheep, deer, and horses were illustrated. The artifacts, usually plaques or pendants, were made from metal, and the backgrounds were decorated with openwork or mountainous landscapes, which harks back to the Xianbei nomadic lifestyle. With repeated animal imagery, an openwork background, and a rectangular frame, the included image of the three deer plaque is a paradigm of the Xianbei art style. Concave plaque backings imply that plaques were made using lost-wax casting, or raised designs were impressed on the back of hammered metal sheets.^[77][78]

Horses

The nomadic traditions of the Xianbei inspired them to portray horses in their artwork. The horse played a large role in the existence of the Xianbei as a nomadic people, and in one tomb, a horse skull lay atop Xianbei bells, buckles, ornaments, a saddle, and one gilded bronze stirrup.^[79] The Xianbei not only created art for their horses, but they also made art to depict horses. Another recurring motif was the winged horse. It has been suggested by archaeologist Su Bai that this symbol was a "heavenly beast in the shape of a horse" because of its prominence in Xianbei mythology.^[77] This symbol is thought to have guided an early Xianbei southern migration, and is a recurring image in many Xianbei art forms.

Figurines

Xianbei figurines help to portray the people of the society by representing pastimes, depicting specialized clothing, and implying various beliefs. Most figurines have been recovered from Xianbei tombs, so they are primarily military and musical figures meant to serve the deceased in afterlife processions and guard their tomb. Furthermore, the figurine clothing specifies the according social statuses: higher-ranking Xianbei wore long-sleeved robes with a straight neck shirt underneath, while lower-ranking Xianbei wore trousers and belted tunics.^[80]

Buddhist influences

Xianbei Buddhist influences were derived from interactions with Han culture. The Han bureaucrats initially helped the Xianbei run their state, but eventually the Xianbei became Sinophiles and promoted Buddhism. The beginning of this conversion is evidenced by the Buddha imagery that emerges in Xianbei art. For instance, the included Buddha imprinted leaf headdress perfectly represents the Xianbei conversion and Buddhist synthesis since it combines both the traditional nomadic Xianbei leaf headdress with the new imagery of Buddha. This Xianbei religious conversion continued to develop in the Northern Wei dynasty, and ultimately led to the creation of the Yungang Grottoes.^[75]

Language

The Xianbei are thought to have spoken

The Xianbei derived from the context of the Donghu, who are likely to have contained the linguistic ancestors of the Mongols. Later branches and descendants of the Xianbei include the Tabghach and Khitan, who seem to have been linguistically Para-Mongolic. [...] Opinions differ widely as to what the linguistic impact of the Xianbei period was. Some scholars (like Clauson) have preferred to regard the Xianbei and Tabghach (Tuoba) as Turks, with the implication that the entire layer of early Turkic borrowings in Mongolic would have been received from the Xianbei, rather than from the Xiongnu. However, since the Mongolic (or Para-Mongolic) identity of the Xianbei is increasingly obvious in the light of recent progress in Khitan studies, it is more reasonable to assume (with Doerfer) that the flow of linguistic influence from Turkic into Mongolic was at least partly reversed during the Xianbei period, yielding the first identifiable layer of Mongolic (or Para-Mongolic) loanwords in Turkic.^[4]

It is also possible that the Xianbei spoke more than one language.^{[82][83][5][1]}

Anthropology

According to Du, et al. (2024), some historians believe that the Xianbei could have had "exotic" features such as high nose bridges, blond hair and thick beards. However, other scholars have suggested the appearance of the Xianbei was not dramatically different from modern East Asians. A genetic analysis of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou revealed that he had an East Asian appearance, consistent with the hypothesis that the Xianbei were primarily of East Asian appearance.^[85]

Yellow hair in Chinese sources could have meant brown rather than blonde and described other people such as the Jie rather than the Xianbei. Historian Edward H. Schafer believes many of the Xianbei were blondes, but others such as Charles Holcombe think it is "likely that the bulk of the Xianbei were not visibly very different in appearance from the general population of northeastern Asia."^[82] Chinese anthropologist Zhu Hong and Zhang Quan-chao studied Xianbei crania from several sites of Inner Mongolia and noticed that anthropological features of studied Xianbei crania show that the racial type is closely related to the modern East-Asians, and some physical characteristics of those skulls are closer to modern Mongols, Manchu and Han Chinese.^[86]

Genetics

A genetic study published in

A genetic study published in the Russian Journal of Genetics in April 2014 examined the mtDNA of 17 Tuoba Xianbei buried at the Shangdu Dongdajing cemetery in Inner Mongolia, China. The 17 samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups D4 (four samples), D5 (three samples), C (five samples), A (three samples), G and B.^[90]

A genetic study published in the

American Journal of Physical Anthropology in November 2007 examined 17 individuals buried at a Murong Xianbei cemetery in Lamadong, Liaoning, China ca. 300 AD.^[91] They were determined to be carriers of the maternal haplogroups J1b1, D (three samples), F1a (three samples), M, B, B5b, C (three samples) and G2a.^[92] These haplogroups are common among East Asians and some Siberians. The maternal haplogroups of the Murong Xianbei were noticeably different from those of the Huns and Tuoba Xianbei.^[91]

A genetic study published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology in August 2018 noted that the paternal

Rouran, and was probably an important lineage among the Donghu people.^[93]

A full genome analysis published in November 2023 analyzed the genomic data of nine Xianbei individuals (ca. 200 CE to 300 CE), together with previous published Xianbei samples, covering almost the entire period of Xianbei as well as pre- and post-Xianbei periods, and found that the Xianbei displayed a homogenous population with nearly exclusive Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry. The authors further remark that these results are consistent with an Amur River region, specifically around the Greater Khingan mountain range area, origin for the ancestral Xianbei population. Early Xianbei did not display signs of admixture from surrounding groups, while later Xianbei displayed limited amounts of admixture with "late Xiongnu-Sarmatian-like" and Han Chinese ("Yellow River farmer-like") groups. Later Xianbei in Northern China adopted an agricultural lifestyle and mixed with the local population, contributing to the genetic history of Northern China.^[94]

A 2024 study on Xianbei remains, including the remains of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, found them to be derived primarily from Ancient Northeast Asians (c. 62–96%), with a lower amount of admixture from Neolithic 'Yellow River farmers' (associated with Han Chinese at c. 4–32%). Western Steppe Herder ancestry was only found at low amounts or absent entirely among the different Xianbei remains (average at c. 2–7%). The analysed Xianbei remains display their closest genetic affinities to ancient Khitan and Mohe people, as well as modern-day Mongolic peoples. The amount of Ancient Northeast Asian and Yellow River farmer ancestries varied depending on geographic location, suggesting a form of heterogeneity among the ancient Xianbei. In contrast to the Xianbei, the early Turkic ruling class, the Ashina tribe, was found to be nearly entirely derived from Ancient Northeast Asians without significant Yellow River ancestry.^[95]

Northern Qi hunting scene

Northern Qi hunting scene

Notable people

Pre-dynastic

• Xianbei State
  until his death in 182
• Kebineng (軻比能, died 235), a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period
• Tufa Shujineng (禿髮樹機能, died 279), a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the Three Kingdoms period

Sixteen Kingdoms

Yan

• Murong Huang (慕容皝, 297–348), founder of the state Former Yan
• Murong Jun (慕容儁, 319–360), was the second ruler of the state Former Yan
• Murong Chui (慕容垂, 326–396), was a general of the state Former Yan who later became the founding emperor of Later Yan
• Murong Ke (慕容恪, died 367), a famed general and statesman of the state Former Yan
• Murong De (慕容德, 336–405), founder of the state Southern Yan
• Murong Chao (慕容超, 385–410), was the last emperor of the Murong Xianbei state Southern Yan

Dai

• Tuoba Yilu (拓跋猗盧, died 316), son of Tuoba Shamohan, who was head of the Tuoba clan, Duke of Dai, and later, Prince of Dai, being the founder of this Xianbei kingdom

Northern dynasties

• Tuoba Gui (拓跋珪, 371–409), founding emperor of the Northern Wei
• Tuoba Tao (拓拔燾, 408–452), was the third emperor of the Northern Wei
• Tufa Poqiang (禿髮破羌, 407–479), a paramount general of the Northern Wei
• Yuwen Tai (宇文泰, 507–556), a paramount general of the state Western Wei, a branch successor state of Northern Wei
• Dugu Xin (独孤信, 503–557), a paramount general of the state Western Wei
• Yuchi Jiong (尉遲迥, died 580), a paramount general of the states Western Wei and Northern Zhou
• Lou Zhaojun (婁昭君, 501–562), an empress dowager of the state Northern Qi
• lady in waiting in the palace of the state Northern Qi
• Yuwen Hu (宇文護, 513–572), a regent of the state Northern Zhou
• Mu Tipo (穆提婆, 527–577), a paramount official of the state Northern Qi
• Mu Yeli (穆邪利, 557–577), an empress of the state Northern Qi
• Gao Anagong (高阿那肱, died 580), a paramount official and general of the state Northern Qi
• Queen Dugu (獨孤王后, 536–558), a queen of the state Northern Zhou
• Yuwen Yong (宇文邕, 543–578), emperor of the state Northern Zhou

"Nirun" and Rouran

Tribe

• Yujiulü Mugulü (郁久閭木骨閭, ?–?), was a Xianbei slave and the ancestor the Yujiulü clan, from whom sprang the founders of the Rouran Khaganate^[58]
• Rourans, succeeded Mùgǔlǘ (Mugulü) and was the son of the same^[58]

Khaganate

• Rouran
  from 402 to 410
• Rouran
  from 414 to July, 429
• Rouran
  (520–552)
• Rouran (553–554) in the east. He was the son of Anagui
• Rouran. He was a cousin of Anagui

Sui Dynasty

• Dugu Qieluo (獨孤伽羅, 544–602), formally Empress Wenxian (文獻皇后), was an empress of the Sui dynasty
• Yuchi Yichen (尉遲義臣, died 617), a prominent general of Sui Dynasty
• Yuwen Shu (宇文述, died 616), a paramount general of Sui dynasty
• Yuwen Huaji (宇文化及, 569–619), a paramount general of Sui dynasty
• Yuwen Zhiji (宇文智及, 572–619), a general of Sui dynasty

Tang Dynasty

• Empress Zhangsun (長孫皇后, 601–636), was an empress of Tang dynasty. She was the wife of Emperor Taizong
• Zhangsun Wuji (長孫無忌, died 659), a paramount official who served both as general and chancellor in the early Tang dynasty
• door gods in Chinese folk religion
• Qutu Tong (屈突通, 557–628), a general in Sui and Tang dynasties of China. He was listed as one of 24 founding officials of Tang Dynasty honored on the Lingyan Pavilion due to his contributions in wars during the transitional period from Sui to Tang
• Zhangsun Shunde (長孫顺德, ?–?), a general in the early Tang dynasty
• Yuwen Shiji (宇文士及, died 642), an official who served both as general and chancellor in the early Tang dynasty
• Yu Zhining (于志寧, 588–665), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reigns of Emperor Taizong and Emperor Gaozong
• Dou Dexuan (竇德玄, 598–666), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong
• Yuwen Jie (宇文節, ?–?), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong
• Lou Shide (婁師德, 630–699), a scholar-general of Tang Dynasty, during the reign of Wu Zetian
• Doulu Qinwang (豆盧欽望, 624–709), a chancellor of Tang Dynasty, during the reign of Wu Zetian
• Dou Huaizhen (竇懷貞, died 713), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong
• Yuwen Rong (宇文融, died 731), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong
• Yuan Qianyao (源乾曜, died 731), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong
• Yu Di (于頔, died 818), a general and official of Tang dynasty
• eunuch official of the middle Tang dynasty
• Yuan Zhen (元稹, 779–831), a poet and politician of the middle Tang dynasty
• Yu Cong (于琮, died 881), a chancellor of late Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Yizong
• Doulu Zhuan (豆盧瑑, died 881), a chancellor of late Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xizong

Modern descendants

See also: Change of Xianbei names to Han names

Most Xianbei clans adopted Chinese family names during Northern Wei Dynasty. In particular, many were sinicized under Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei.

The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames 八大贵族 were the Buliugu 步六孤, Helai 賀賴, Dugu 獨孤, Helou 賀樓, Huniu 忽忸, Qiumu 丘穆, Gexi 紇奚, and Yuchi 尉遲.

The "

Tuyuhun Kingdom (284–670) in the third century and Western Xia (1038–1227) through the thirteenth century.^[96]

Today they are primarily distributed in Qinghai and Gansu Province, and speak a Mongolic language.

The

Jurchens, the Elunchun, and the Xianbei.^[97][98]

Xianbei descendants among the Korean population carry surnames such as Mo 모 (Chinese: 慕; pinyin: mù; Wade–Giles: mu (shortened from Murong)), Seok Sŏk Sek 석 Chinese: 石; pinyin: shí; Wade–Giles: shih (shortened from Wushilan 烏石蘭), Won Wŏn 원 (Chinese: 元; pinyin: yuán; Wade–Giles: yüan (the adopted Chinese surname of the Tuoba)) and Dokgo 독고 (Chinese: 獨孤; pinyin: Dúgū; Wade–Giles: Tuku (from Dugu)).^{[99][100][101][102][103][104][105]}

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xianbei.

• Khitan people
• Kebineng
• War of the Eight Princes
• Upheaval of the Five Barbarians
• Sixteen Kingdoms
• Conquest of Ran Wei by Former Yan
• Northern and Southern dynasties
• Northern Wei Dynasty
• Battle of Canhe Slope
• Change of Xianbei names to Han names
• Northern Qi
• Gao Huan
• Lou Zhaojun
• Han Zhangluan
• Northern Zhou
• Yuwen Tai
• Tribes in Chinese history
• Wu Hu
• Serbi–Mongolic languages
• Para-Mongolic languages

Notes

1. ^ Zhang Zhengming (2017) accepts the reading 鮮卑^[26] (also seen in the early 19th century version published by Jinzhang bookstore (錦章図書局) in Shanghai^[27]) as the ethnonym of the people who accompanied the Chu. However, 鮮卑 Xianbei is likely a scribal error for 鮮牟 Xianmou (as in other versions like Sibu Congkan (四部叢刊),^[28] or Siku Quanshu (四庫全書)^[29]). Eastern Wu scholar Wei Zhao states that the 鮮牟 Xianmou were an Eastern Yi nation,^[30][31] while the 鮮卑 Xianbei were of Mountain Rong origin.^[32][33] The apparent scribal error results in contradicting statements, apparently by Wei Zhao, that the Xianbei were an Eastern Yi nation^[34] and a people of Mountain Rong origin.^[35] Huang Pilie (1763-1825) states that the reading 鮮卑 Xianbei was inauthentic and identifies the 鮮牟 Xianmou with 根牟 Genmou, an Eastern Yi nation conquered by the Lu state in the 9th year of Duke Xuan of Lu's reign (600 BCE).^[36][37][38]

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} Golden 2013, p. 47, quote: "The Xianbei confederation appears to have contained speakers of Pre-Proto-Mongolic, perhaps the largest constituent linguistic group, as well as former Xiongnu subjects, who spoke other languages, Turkic almost certainly being one of them."
2. ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1983). "The Chinese and Their Neighbors in Prehistoric and Early Historic China," in The Origins of Chinese Civilization, University of California Press, p. 452 of pp. 411–466.
3. ^ Kradin N. N. (2011). "Heterarchy and hierarchy among the ancient Mongolian nomads". Social Evolution & History. 10 (1): 188.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Janhunen 2006, pp. 405–6.
5. ^ ^{a b} Xu Elina-Qian (2005). Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan. University of Helsinki. p. 173-179
6. ^ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp Die frühen Türken in Zentralasien, Darmstadt 1992, p. 10
7. ^ ^{a b} de Crespigny 2017, p. 502.
8. ^ Theobald, Ulrich. "Xianbei 鮮卑". Chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
9. ^ "The Sixteen States of the Five Barbarian Peoples 五胡十六國". Chinaknowledge.de.
10. ISBN 9780521497817
    .
11. ISBN 9780520053700
    .
12. ISBN 9780199252282
    .
13. ISBN 9781603844475
    .
14. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7
    .
15. ^ Tang, Qiaomei (May 2016). Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China (First through Sixth Century) (PDF) (A dissertation presented by Qiaomei Tang to The Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of East Asian Languages and Civilizations). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. pp. 151, 152, 153.
16. ^ Toh, Hoong Teik (2005). "The -yu Ending in Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Gaoju Onomastica. Appendix I: the ethnicon Xianbei" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 146: 10–12.
17. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9
    .
18. ^ Golden, Peter B. “The Stateless Nomads of Central Eurasia” Archived 15 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine, in Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity Edited by DiCosmo, Maas. p. 347-348. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316146040.024
19. ^ Hou Hanshu vol. 90 "鮮卑者，亦東胡之支也，別依鮮卑山，故因號焉" "the Xianbei people branched off from the so-called 'Eastern Hu' and came to settle around Mt. Xianbei after which name they were designated" translated by Toh (2005)
20. ^ Weishu vol. 1
21. ^ Tseng, Chin Yin (2012). The Making of the Tuoba Northern Wei: Constructing Material Cultural Expressions in the Northern Wei Pingcheng Period (398–494 CE) (PhD). University of Oxford. p. 1.
22. ISBN 978-90-04-35195-0
    . Retrieved 22 September 2019.
23. ^ Chu Ci, "Da Zhao". quote: "小腰秀頸，若鮮卑只。". translation (by Gopal Sukhu, 2017): "And she is as small-waisted and long-necked [a]s a Xianbei woman."
24. cogon grass
    (through which to pour sacrificial wine), set up spirit tablets (for making offerings to the spirits of mountains and streams), and tended to the torches along with the Xianbei, therefore (the Chu) were not present at the alliance-covenant ceremony."
25. ^ Zhang, Zhengming. (2019) A History Of Chu (Volume 1) Honolulu: Enrich Professional Publishing. p. 42-46
26. ^ Zhang, Zhengming. (2019) A History Of Chu (Volume 1) Honolulu: Enrich Professional Publishing. p. 45. quote: "and tending the shrine flames together with the Xianbei 鮮卑 clan leader."
27. ^ Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, vol. 2 p. 36 Waseda University Library's copy
28. ^ Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 3 p. 140 of 154
29. ^ Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Siku Quanshu version, vol. 3-7, p. 42 of 148
30. ^ Guoyu, "Jinyu 8", explained by Wei Zhao, 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 3 p. 140 of 154. quote: "鮮牟東夷國"
31. ^ Guoyu, "Jinyu 8", explained by Wei Zhao. Siku Quanshu version, vol. 3-7, p. 43 of 148. quote: "鮮牟東夷國"
32. ^ Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu", 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 2, p. 90 of 160, quote: "山戎今之鮮卑"
33. ^ Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu". Siku Quanshu version, vol. 6-8, p. 28 of 111, quote: "山戎今之鮮卑"
34. ^ Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, vol. 2 p. 36. quote: "鮮卑東夷國". Waseda University Library's copy
35. ^ Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, p. 42. quote: "山戎今之鮮卑". Waseda University Library's copy
36. ^ Chunqiu Zuo Zhuan "Duke Xuan's 9th year" jing; quote:（ 秋，取根牟。）; rough translation: "In autumn, [Lu] conquered Genmou." zhuan; quote:（秋，取根牟，言易也。）; rough translation: "In autumn, [Lu] conquered Genmou. It's said that was easy."
37. ^ Du Yu, 《春秋經傳集解》 Chunqiu Zuozhuan - Collected Explanations, "vol. 2" p. 151 of 190. quote:（ 根牟東夷國也 ）
38. ^ Xu Yuangao & Wang Shumin (2002). 國語集解 (Discourses of the States - Collected Explanations) Publisher: Zhonghua Book Company. p. 430. quote:（ 黃丕烈曰：「鮮牟，一本作『鮮卑』，非。『鮮牟』即宣九年之『根牟』也，…… 。」）; rough translation: "Huang Pilie said: 'Xianmou (鮮牟), in one copy it is written as Xianbei (鮮卑), which is inauthentic. The Xianmou (鮮牟) are the Genmou (根牟) in (Duke) Xuan's 9th year. [...].'"
39. ^ Xu Elina-Qian, Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 164
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50. ^ SGZ 30. 837–838, note. 1.
51. ^ Cosmo 2009, p. 107.
52. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 445.
53. ^ de Crespigny 2017, p. 401.
54. ^ de Crespigny 2007, p. 320.
55. ^ de Crespigny 2007, p. 237.
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89. ^ Yu et al. 2006, p. 6242, 6244–6245.
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• Golden, Peter Benjamin (2013). Curta, Florin; Maleon, Bogdan-Petru (eds.). "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran". The Steppe Lands and the World Beyond Them. Iași: Editura Universității "A.I. Cuza" Publisher: 43–66.
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External links

• 鮮卑語言 The Xianbei language (Chinese Traditional Big5 code page) via Internet Archive