Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas is divided into two distinct periods: the initial peopling of the Americas during about 20,000 to 14,000 years ago (20–14 kya), and European contact, after about 500 years ago.[1][2] The first period of the genetic history of Indigenous Americans is the determinant factor for the number of genetic lineages, zygosity mutations, and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous American populations.[3]
Indigenous American populations descend from an
Analyses of genetics among Indigenous American and Siberian populations have been used to argue for early isolation of
Autosomal DNA
Genetic diversity and population structure in the American landmass is also measured using
The overall pattern suggests that the Americas were colonized by a small number of individuals (effective size of about 70), which grew by many orders of magnitude over 800 – 1000 years.[21][22] The data also shows that there have been genetic exchanges between Asia, the Arctic, and Greenland since the initial peopling of the Americas.[22][23]
According to an autosomal genetic study from 2012,
In 2014, the autosomal DNA of a 12,500+ year old infant from Montana was sequenced.[25] The DNA was taken from a skeleton referred to as Anzick-1, found in close association with several Clovis artifacts. Comparisons showed strong affinities with DNA from Siberian sites, and virtually ruled out that particular individual had any close affinity with European sources (the "Solutrean hypothesis"). The DNA also showed strong affinities with all existing Indigenous American populations, which indicated that all of them derive from an ancient population that lived in or near Siberia.[26]
Linguistic studies have reinforced genetic studies, with relationships between languages found among those spoken in Siberia and those spoken in the Americas.[27]
Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. However, an ancient signal of shared ancestry with Australasians (Indigenous peoples of Australia, Melanesia, and the
A 2018 study analysed ancient Indigenous samples. The genetic evidence suggests that all Indigenous Americans ultimately descended from a founding population that combined
A study published in the Nature journal in 2018 concluded that Indigenous Americans descended from a single founding population which initially divided from East Asians about ~36,000 (±1,500) years BP, with gene flow between this divided group of Ancestral Indigenous Americans and Siberians persisting until about ~25,000 (±1,100) years BP, before becoming isolated in the Americas or Beringia at ~22,000 years BP. Northern and Southern American Indigenous sub-populations split from each other at roughly ~17,500 to 14,600 years BP. There is also some evidence for a back-migration from the Americas into Siberia after ~11,500 years BP.[4]
A study published in the Cell journal in 2019, analysed 49 ancient Indigenous American samples from all over North and South America, and concluded that all Indigenous American populations descended from a single ancestral source population which divided from Siberians and East Asians, and gave rise to the Ancestral Indigenous Americans, which later diverged into the various Indigenous groups. The authors further dismissed previous claims for the possibility of two distinct population groups among the peopling of the Americas. Both, Northern and Southern Indigenous Americans are closest to each other, and do not show evidence of admixture with hypothetical previous populations.[36]
A review article published in the Nature journal in 2021, which summarized the results of previous genomic studies, similarly concluded that all Indigenous Americans descended from the movement of people from Northeast Asia into the Americas. These Ancestral Americans, once south of the continental ice sheets, spread and expanded rapidly, and branched into multiple groups, which later gave rise to the major subgroups of Indigenous American populations. The study also dismissed the existence, inferred from craniometric data, of a hypothetical distinct non-Indigenous American population (suggested to have been related to Indigenous Australians and Papuans), sometimes called "Paleoamerican".[38][39]
Overall, the 'Ancestral Native Americans' descended from an '
Y-chromosome DNA
A "Central Siberian" origin has been postulated for the paternal lineage of the source populations of the original migration into the Americas.[41]
Membership in haplogroups
The
Haplogroup Q
Starting the
Since the discovery of Q-M3, several
Haplogroup R1
Initially, there was debate about the origin of haplogroup R1b in Native Americans. Two early studies suggested that this haplogroup could have been one of the founding Siberian lineages of Native Americans, however this is now considered unlikely, because the R1b lineages commonly found in Native Americans are in most cases identical to those in western Europeans, and its highest concentration is found among a variety of the Algonquin speaking tribes in eastern North America.[60]
Thus, according to several authors, R1b was most likely introduced through admixture during the post-1492 European settlement of North America.[61][62][63]
R1 (M173) is found predominantly in North American groups like the
Haplogroup C-P39
Haplogroup C-M217 is found mainly in Indigenous Siberians,
Some researchers feel that this may indicate that the Na-Dene migration occurred from the
In addition to in Na-Dene peoples, haplogroup C-P39 (C2b1a1a) is also found among other Indigenous Americans such as
Data
Listed here are notable Indigenous peoples of the Americas by
Group | Language | Place | n | C |
Q |
R1 | Others | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Algonquian[nb 1] | Algic | Northeast North America | 155 | 7.7 | 33.5 [nb 2] | 38.1 | 20.6 | Bolnick 2006[70] |
Apache | Na-Dene | SW United States | 96 | 14.6 | 78.1 | 5.2 | 2.1 | Zegura 2004[10] |
Athabaskan[nb 3]
|
Na-Dene | Western North America | 243 | 11.5 | 70.4 | 18.1 | Malhi 2008[59] | |
Cherokee | Iroquoian | SE United States | 62 | 1.6 | 50.0 [nb 4] | 37.1 | 11.3 | Bolnick 2006[70] |
Cherokee | Iroquoian | Eastern North America | 30 | 50.0 | 46.7 | 3.3 | Malhi 2008[59] | |
Cheyenne
|
Algic | United States | 44 | 16 | 61 | 16 | 7 | Zegura 2004[10] |
Chibchan[nb 5]
|
Macro-Chibchan | Panama | 26 | 100 | Zegura 2004[10] | |||
Chipewyan
|
Na-Dene | Canada | 48 | 6 | 31 [nb 6] | 62.5[nb 7] | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |
Chippewa
|
Algic | Eastern North America | 97 | 4.1 | 15.9 [nb 8] | 50.5 | 29.9 | Bolnick 2006[70] |
Dogrib
|
Na-Dene | Canada | 15 | 33 | 27 | 40 | Malhi 2008[59] | |
Dogrib
|
Na-Dene | Canada | 37 | 35.1 | 45.9 [nb 9] | 8.1 | 10.8 | Dulik 2012[71] |
Gê[nb 10]
|
Macro-Jê | Brazil | 51 | 92 [nb 11] | 8 | Bortoloni 2003[8] | ||
Guaraní | Tupian | Paraguay | 59 | 86 [nb 12] | 9 | 5 | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |
Inga | Quechua
|
Colombia | 11 | 78 [nb 13] | 11 | 11 | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |
Inuit | Eskimo–Aleut
|
North American Arctic | 60 | 80.0 | 11.7 | 8.3 | Zegura 2004[10] | |
Inuvialuit
|
Eskimo–Aleut
|
Canada | 56 | 1.8 | 55.1 [nb 14] | 33.9 | 8.9 | Dulik 2012[71] |
Mayan | Mesoamerica | 71 | 87.3 | 12.7 | Zegura 2004[10] | |||
Mixe | Mixe–Zoque | Mexico | 12 | 100 | Zegura 2004[10] | |||
Mixtec
|
Oto-Manguean | Mexico | 28 | 93 | 7 | Zegura 2004[10] | ||
Muskogean[nb 15]
|
Muskogean | SE United States | 36 | 2.8 | 75 [nb 16] | 11.1 | 11.1 | Bolnick 2006[70] |
Nahua
|
Uto-Aztecan | Mexico | 17 | 94 | 6 | Malhi 2008[59] | ||
Native Americans (United States) |
United States | 398 | 9.0 | 58.1 | 22.2 | 10.7 | Hammer 2005[72] | |
Navajo
|
Na-Dene | SW United States | 78 | 1.3 | 92.3 | 2.6 | 3.8 | Zegura 2004[10] |
Indigenous North Americans
|
North America | 530 | 6.0 | 77.2 | 12.5 | 4.3 | Zegura 2004[10] | |
Papago
|
Uto-Aztecan | SW United States | 13 | 61.5 | 38.5 | Malhi 2008[59] | ||
Seminole | Muskogean | Eastern North America | 20 | 45.0 | 50.0 | 5.0 | Malhi 2008[59] | |
Sioux | Macro-Siouan | Central North America | 44 | 11 | 25 | 50 | 14 | Zegura 2004[10] |
South America | Amerindian | South America | 390 | 92 [nb 17] | 4 | 4 | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |
Tanana
|
Na-Dene | Northwest North America | 12 | 42 | 42 | 8 | 8 | Zegura 2004[10] |
Ticuna
|
Ticuna–Yuri | West Amazon basin | 33 | 100 [nb 18] | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |||
Tlingit
|
Na-Dene | Pacific Northwest | 11 | 18 [nb 19] | 82 [nb 20] | Dulik 2012[71] | ||
Tupí–Guaraní[nb 21]
|
Tupian | Brazil | 54 | 100 [nb 22] | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |||
Uto-Aztecan[nb 23]
|
Uto-Aztecan | Mexico, Arizona | 167 | 93.4 | 6.0 | Malhi 2008[59] | ||
Warao | Warao (isolate) | Caribbean South America | 12 | 100 [nb 24] | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |||
Wayúu | Arawakan | Guajira Peninsula | 19 | 69 [nb 25] | 21 | 10 | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |
Wayúu | Arawakan | Guajira Peninsula | 25 | 8 | 36 | 44 | 12 | Zegura 2004[10] |
Yagua
|
Peba–Yaguan | Peru | 7 | 100 [nb 26] | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |||
Yukpa | Cariban | Colombia | 12 | 100 [nb 27] | Bortoloni 2003[8] | |||
Zapotec | Oto-Manguean | Mexico | 16 | 75 | 6 | 19 | Zegura 2004[10] | |
Zenú | extinct | Colombia | 30 | 81 [nb 28] | 19 | Bortoloni 2003[8] |
Mitochondrial DNA
The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Indigenous American populations has long been recognized, along with the presence of Haplogroup X.
When studying human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup, the results indicated that Indigenous American haplogroups, including haplogroup X, are part of a single founding East Asian population. It also indicates that the distribution of mtDNA haplogroups and the levels of sequence divergence among linguistically similar groups were the result of multiple preceding migrations from Bering Straits populations.[77] All Indigenous American mtDNA can be traced back to five haplogroups: A, B, C, D and X.[78][79] More specifically, Indigenous American mtDNA belongs to sub-haplogroups A2, B2, C1b, C1c, C1d, D1, and X2a (with minor groups C4c, D2a, and D4h3a).[6][77] This suggests that 95% of Indigenous American mtDNA is descended from a minimal genetic founding female population, comprising sub-haplogroups A2, B2, C1b, C1c, C1d, and D1.[78] The remaining 5% is composed of the X2a, D2a, C4c, and D4h3a sub-haplogroups.[77][78]
X is one of the five mtDNA haplogroups found in Indigenous Americans. Native Americans mostly belong to the X2a clade, which has never been found in the Old World.[80] According to Jennifer Raff, X2a probably originated in the same Siberian population as the other four founding maternal lineages.[81]
Haplogroup X genetic sequences diverged about 20,000 to 30,000 years ago to give two sub-groups, X1 and X2. X2's subclade X2a occurs only at a frequency of about 3% for the total current Indigenous population of the Americas.
Sequencing of the mitochondrial genome from
A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.[91] An abstract in a 2012 issue of the "American Journal of Physical Anthropology" states that "The similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indigenous Americans. Taking into account that C4c is deeply rooted in the Asian portion of the mtDNA phylogeny and is indubitably of Asian origin, the finding that C4c and X2a are characterized by parallel genetic histories definitively dismisses the controversial hypothesis of an Atlantic glacial entry route into North America."[92]
Another study, also focused on the mtDNA (which is inherited through only the maternal line),[6] revealed that the Indigenous people of the Americas can trace their maternal ancestry back to a few founding lineages from East Asia, which would have arrived by way of the Bering Strait. According to this study, it is probable that the ancestors of the Indigenous Americans would have remained for a time in the region of the Bering Strait, after which there would have been a rapid movement of settling of the Americas, taking the founding lineages to South America.
According to a 2016 study, focused on mtDNA lineages, "a small population entered the Americas via a coastal route around 16.0 ka, following previous isolation in eastern Beringia for ~2.4 to 9 thousand years after separation from eastern Siberian populations. Following a rapid movement throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a marked phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted through time. All of the ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, suggesting a high extinction rate. To investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a substantial loss of pre-Columbian lineages".[93]
Genetic admixture
Ancient Beringians
Recent archaeological findings in Alaska have shed light on the existence of a previously unknown Indigenous American population that has been academically named "Ancient Beringians".[94] Although it is popularly agreed among archeologists that early settlers had crossed into Alaska from Russia through the Bering Strait land bridge, the issue of whether or not there was one founding group or several waves of migration is a controversial and prevalent debate among academics in the field today. In 2018, the sequenced DNA of an Indigenous girl, whose remains were found at the Upward Sun River archaeological site in Alaska in 2013, proved not to match the two recognized branches of Indigenous Americans and instead belonged to the early population of Ancient Beringians.[95] This breakthrough is said to be the first direct genomic evidence that there was potentially only one wave of migration in the Americas that occurred, with genetic branching and division transpiring after the fact. The migration wave is estimated to have emerged about 20,000 years ago.[94] The Ancient Beringians are said to be a common ancestral group among contemporary Indigenous American populations today, which differs in results collected from previous research that suggests that modern populations are descendants of either Northern and Southern branches.[94] Experts were also able to use wider genetic evidence to establish that the split between the Northern and Southern American branches from the Ancient Beringians in Alaska only occurred about 17,000 and 14,000 years,[24] further challenging the concept of multiple migration waves occurring during the very first stages of settlement.
Genetic evidence for
Nomatto et al. (2009) proposed migration into Beringia occurred between 40,000 and 30,000 BP, with a pre-LGM migration into the Americas followed by isolation of the northern population following closure of the ice-free corridor.[98]
A 2016 genetic study of Indigenous peoples of the Amazonian region of Brazil (by Skoglund and Reich) showed evidence of admixture from a separate lineage of an otherwise unknown ancient people. This ancient group appears to be related to modern day "
Archaeological evidence for pre-LGM human presence in the Americas was first presented in the 1970s.[99][100] notably the "Luzia Woman" skull found in Brazil.[101][102][103]
Old world
Substantial
South and Central America
In Latin America in particular, significant racial admixture took place between the Indigenous American population, the European-descended colonial population, and the Sub-Saharan African populations
Many individuals who self-identify as one race exhibit genetic evidence of a
North America
The
In the
Some tribes have adopted
European diseases and genetic modification
A team led by Ripan Malhi, an anthropologist at the
Blood groups
Prior to the 1952 confirmation of DNA as the hereditary material by
Research by
The standard explanation for such a high population of Indigenous Americans with blood type O is genetic drift. Because the ancestral population of Indigenous Americans was numerically small, blood type diversity could have been reduced from generation to generation by the founder effect.[131] Other related explanations include the Bottleneck explanation which states that there were high frequencies of blood type A and B among Indigenous Americans but severe population decline during the 1500s and 1600s caused by the introduction of disease from Europe resulted in the massive death toll of those with blood types A and B. Coincidentally, a large amount of the survivors were type O.[131]
PEOPLE GROUP | O (%) | A (%) | B (%) | AB (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Blackfoot Confederacy (Indigenous North American) | 17 | 82 | 0 | 1 |
Bororo (Brazil)
|
100 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Eskimos (Alaska) | 38 | 44 | 13 | 5 |
Inuit (Eastern Canada & Greenland) | 54 | 36 | 23 | 8 |
Hawaiians (Polynesians, non-Indigenous American) | 37 | 61 | 2 | 1 |
Indigenous North Americans (as a whole Native Nations/First Nations) | 79 | 16 | 4 | 1 |
Maya (modern) | 98 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Navajo | 73 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
Peru
|
100 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
The Dia antigen of the Diego antigen system has been found only in Indigenous peoples of the Americas and East Asians, and in people with some ancestry from those groups. The frequency of the Dia antigen in various groups of Indigenous peoples of the Americas ranges from almost 50% to 0%.[133] Differences in the frequency of the antigen in populations of Indigenous people in the Americas correlate with major language families, modified by environmental conditions.[134]
See also
- Introduction to genetics
- Archaeogenetics
- Archaeology of the Americas
- Ancient DNA
- Clovis culture
- Early human migrations
- Genetic history of Africa
- Genetic history of Europe
- Genetic history of Italy
- Genetic history of North Africa
- Genetic history of the British Isles
- Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula
- Genetic history of the Middle East
- Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia
- List of haplogroups of historic people
- Mayan genetics
- Race and genetics
- Settlement of the Americas § Genomic age estimates
- List of Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world
Notes
- .
- ^ Q-M3=12.9; Q(xM3)=20.6.
- Navajo.
- ^ Q-M3=32.; Q3(xM3)=17.7.
- Kunapeoples.
- ^ Q-M3=6; Q(xM3)=25.
- ^ P1(xQ) 62.5%. While other studies identify this as R(xR2)/R1b,
the subject remains controversial (see Hammer, Michael F. et al 2005) - ^ Q-M3=8.2; Q(xQ-M3)=7.2.
- ^ Q-M3=40.5; Q(xM3)=5.4.
- ^ Gê ethnic groups: Gorotire, Kaigang, Kraho, Mekranoti and Xikrin.
- ^ Q-M3=90; Q(xM3)=2)
- ^ Q-M3=79; Q(xM3)=7.
- ^ Q-M3=11; Q(xM3)=67.
- ^ Q-M3=10.7; NWT01=44.6.
- Muscogee and Seminole.
- ^ Q-M3=50.0; Q(xM3)=25.0.
- ^ Q-M3=83; Q(xM3)=9.
- ^ Q-M3=89; Q(xM3)=11.
- ^ C3*=9; C3b=9
- ^ Q-M3=64; Q-MEH2*=9; Q-NWT01=9.
- Wayampi.
- ^ All examples of haplogroup Q were Q-M3.
- Huichol.
- ^ Q=M3
- ^ Q-M3=48; Q(xM3)=21.
- ^ Q-M3=86<; Q(xM3)=14.
- ^ Q=M3
- ^ Q-M3=33; Q(xM3)=48.
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Further reading
- Peter N. Jones (October 2002). American Indian mtDNA, Y chromosome genetic data, and the peopling of North America. Bauu Institute. ISBN 978-0-9721349-1-0.
- Joseph Frederick Powell (2005). The first Americans: race, evolution, and the origin of Native Americans. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82350-0.
- Francisco M. Salzano; Maria Cátira Bortolini (2002). The evolution and genetics of Latin American populations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65275-9.
- "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. University of Oklahoma. 2009. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
- McInnes, Roderick R. (March 2011). "2010 Presidential Address: Culture: The Silent Language Geneticists Must Learn— Genetic Research with Indigenous Populations". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 88 (3): 254–261. PMID 21516613.
- Raff, Jennifer (February 8, 2022). Origin: A Genetic History of the Americas. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-4970-8.