Yamhad
Yamhad Halab | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| c. 1810 BC–c. 1517 BC | |||||||||
• c. 1810 – c. 1780 BC | Sumu-Epuh | ||||||||
• c. 1780 – c. 1764 BC | Yarim-Lim I | ||||||||
• mid. 16th century BC – c. 1524 BC | Ilim-Ilimma I | ||||||||
| Historical era | Bronze Age | ||||||||
• Established | c. 1810 BC | ||||||||
• Disestablished | c. 1517 BC | ||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 1750 BC est.[2] | 43,000 km2 (17,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | |||||||||
Yamhad (Yamḫad) was an ancient
Yamhad's population was predominately
History
Little of Halab has been excavated by archaeologists, as Halab was never abandoned during its long history and the modern city is situated above the ancient site.[4] Therefore, most of the knowledge about Yamhad comes from tablets discovered at Alalakh and Mari.[5]
Establishment
The name Yamhad was likely an Amorite tribal name and is used synonymously with Halab when referring to the kingdom.
The name Halab as well as that of Yamhad appeared for the first time during the
Rivalry with Assyria and expansion
The rise of Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria proved more dangerous to Yamhad than Mari. The Amorite king of Assyria was an ambitious conqueror with the aim to rule Mesopotamia and the Levant, and styled himself as "king of the world".[22] Shamshi-Adad surrounded Yamhad by way of alliances with Charchemish, Hassum and Urshu to the north and by conquering Mari to the east, forcing Zimri-Lim the heir of Mari to flee. Sumu-Epuh welcomed Zimri-Lim and aimed to use him against Assyria since he was the legitimate heir of Mari.[21]
Shamshi-Adad's most dangerous alliance was with Qatna, whose king Ishi-Addu became Assyria's agent at Yamhad's borders and married his daughter to Yasmah-Adad, the son of the Assyrian king who was installed by his father as king of Mari.[23] Sumu-Epuh was apparently killed during his fight with Shamshi-Adad and was succeeded by his son Yarim-Lim I,[24] who consolidated his father's kingdom and turned it into the most powerful kingdom in Syria and northern Mesopotamia.[1][25][26] Yarim-Lim surrounded Shamshi-Adad by alliances with Hammurabi of Babylon and Ibal-pi-el II of Eshnunna,[27] then in 1777 BC he advanced to the east conquering Tuttul and installing Zimri-Lim as governor of the city.[27] The death of the Assyrian king came a year later.[27] Yarim-Lim then sent his army with Zimri-Lim, to restore his ancestors throne as an ally-vassal to Yamhad,[27] cementing the relationship through a dynastic marriage between the new Mariote king and Shibtu, the daughter of Yarim-Lim.[28]
"There is no king who is mighty by himself. Ten or fifteen kings follow
, but twenty follow Yarim-Lim of Yamhad."
A tablet sent to Zimri-Lim of Mari, describing Yarim-Lim I authority.[1]
Yarim-Lim spent the next years of his reign expanding the kingdom, which reached
Yarim-Lim I was succeeded by his son Hammurabi I who had a peaceful reign.[27] He was able to force Charchemish into submission,[27] and sent troops to aid Hammurabi of Babylon against Larsa and Elam.[32] The alliance ended after the Babylonian king sacked Mari and destroyed it.[23] Babylon did not attack Yamhad, however, and the relations between the two kingdoms remained peaceful in later years;[23] the power vacuum caused by Mari's fall opened the way for Hammurabi to extend Yamhad's hegemony over the upper Khabur valley in the east, where the ruler of Shubat Enlil became his vassal.[33] Hammurabi I was succeeded by his son Abba-El I, whose reign witnessed the rebellion of the city Irridu, which was under the authority of prince Yarim-Lim, Abba-El's brother.[34] The king responded to the rebellion by destroying Irridu, and compensating his brother by giving him the throne of Alalakh, thus creating a cadet branch of the dynasty.[34]
Decline and end
The era of Abba-El I's successors is poorly documented,
The rise of the
Hattusili was succeeded by his grandson
Kings of Yamhad
Dates are estimated and given by the
| King | Reigned | Title | Relation to Previous King |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sumu-Epuh | c. 1810 BC – c. 1780 BC | King | |
| Yarim-Lim I | c. 1780 BC – c. 1764 BC | Great King | Son.[23] |
| Hammurabi I | c. 1764 BC – c. 1750 BC | Great King | Son.[56] |
| Abba-El I | c. 1750 BC – c. 1720 BC | Great King | Son.[57] |
| Yarim-Lim II | c. 1720 BC – c. 1700 BC | Great King | Son.[58] |
| Niqmi-Epuh | c. 1700 BC – c. 1675 BC | Great King | Son.[59] |
| Irkabtum | c. 1675 BC – Mid-17th century BC | Great King | Son.[60] |
| Hammurabi II | Mid-17th century BC | Great King | Possible brother.[61] |
| Yarim-Lim III | Mid-17th century BC – c. 1625 BC | Great King | Brother of Irkabtum.[62] |
| Hammurabi III | c. 1625 BC – c. 1600 BC | King | Son.[63] |
| Sarra-El | Early 16th century BC | King | Possible son of Yarim-Lim III.[50] |
| Abba-El II | Mid-16th century BC | King | Son.[50] |
| Ilim-Ilimma I | c. 1524 – c. 1517 BC | King | Possible son.[64] |
People and culture
The people of Yamhad were Amorites and spoke the
Since the capital Halab has not been excavated, the architecture of the kingdom is archaeologically best represented by the city of Alalakh,[68] which was subordinate to Halab and ruled by a king belonging to the Yamhadite royal house.[69] The Amorites in general built large palaces that bear architectural similarities to old Babylonian-era palaces. They were adorned with grand central courtyards, throne rooms, tiled floors, drainage systems and plastered walls, which suggest the employment of specialized labor.[70] Evidence exists for the presence of Minoan Aegean fresco artists who painted elaborate scenes on the walls of the palaces in Alalakh.[70]
Yamhad had a distinctive Syrian iconography, which is clear in the seals of the kings that gave prominence to the Syrian gods. Egyptian influence was minimal and limited to the ankh, which cannot be interpreted as an emulation of Egyptian rituals but rather as merely a substitute for the cup held by the deity elsewhere.[71] Yamhad had a special pattern of trim called the Yamhad style, which was favored in Mari during the reign of king Zimri-Lim, whose queen Shibtu was the daughter of Yarim-Lim I.[72]
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Hurrians began to settle in the city and its surroundings,[73] and by c. 1725 BC they constituted a sizable portion of the population.[74] The presence of a large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Halab, as evidenced by the existence of certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names.[75]
Economy
Halab's location has always been a factor in its prominence as an economic center.
The actions of Yarim-Lim I and his alliance with Babylon proved vital for the kingdom's economy, for they secured the trade between Mesopotamia and northern Syria, with the king of Mari protecting the caravans crossing from the Persian Gulf to Anatolia.[79] Emar attracted many Babylonian merchants, who lived in the city and had a lasting impact on the local scribal conventions. As late as the 14th century BC, texts of the so-called Syrian type from Emar preserve distinct Babylonian traits.[79]
The markets of Yamhad became a source of copper, which was imported from the mountains (probably Anatolian) and Cyprus.[80] However, the Babylonian invasion of Mari had a negative impact on the trade between the two kingdoms,[79] as the road became dangerous because of the loss of Mari's protection to the caravans.[79] This led the Babylonian king Samsu-iluna to build many strongholds up the river valley, and to establish colonies of mercenaries known as the "Kassite Houses" to protect the middle Euphrates area.[79] Those colonies later evolved into semi-independent polities that waged a war against the Babylonian king Ammi-Saduqa and caused the trade temporarily to stop.[79]
Religion
The people of Yamhad practiced the
The title "Beloved of Hadad" was one of the king's titles.
Beside the general gods, the kings had a "head god", that is, a deity who had an intimate connection for the worshiper. King Yarim-Lim I described Hadad as the god of the state, but the Mesopotamian deity Sin as the god of his head. His son Hammurabi I did likewise.[90]
See also
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- Armi
- Yamhad dynasty
- List of rulers of Aleppo
References
Citations
- ^ a b c Dalley 2002, p. 44.
- ^ a b c d e Astour 1981, p. 7.
- ^ Hamblin 2006, p. 257.
- ^ Pioske 2015, p. 188.
- ^ Grabbe 2007, p. 58.
- ^ a b Hawkins 2000, p. 388.
- ^ Pfälzner 2012, p. 781.
- ^ Archi 1994, p. 250.
- ^ Hamblin 2006, p. 242.
- ^ a b Feliu 2003, p. 192.
- ^ Oldenburg 1969, p. 65.
- ^ Bryce 2014, p. 111.
- ^ Frayne 1990, p. 780.
- ^ a b Miller 1995, p. 10.
- ^ Schwartz 2010, p. 376.
- ^ Liverani 2013, pp. 225, 226.
- ^ Wossink 2009, p. 128.
- ^ Sasson 1969, p. 45.
- ^ Wu 1994, p. 131.
- ^ Frayne 1990, p. 606.
- ^ a b Pitard 2001, p. 39.
- ^ Schwartz 2013, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e f g Liverani 2013, p. 234.
- ^ Bryce 2009, p. 773.
- ^ Matthiae 2003, p. 383.
- ^ a b Pitard 2001, p. 40.
- ^ a b c d e f Hamblin 2006, p. 259.
- ^ Charpin 2011, p. 257.
- ^ Dodd 2007, p. 210.
- ^ Thuesen 2000, p. 61.
- ^ a b Sasson 1969, p. 2.
- ^ Charpin 2010, p. 102.
- ^ Lauinger 2015, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d e Hamblin 2006, p. 260.
- ^ Claire 2017.
- ^ a b Wiseman 1967, p. 121.
- ^ Miller 1995, p. 12.
- ^ a b Hamblin 2006, p. 258.
- ^ Bryce 2014, p. 27.
- ^ a b Liverani 2013, p. 260.
- ^ Collon 1995, p. 97.
- ^ Hamblin 2006, pp. 298, 299.
- ^ Bryce 1999, p. 83.
- ^ Bryce 2014, p. 29.
- ^ Burney 2004, p. 107.
- ^ Bryce 1999, p. 152.
- ^ Hamblin 2006, p. 260.
- ^ Payne 2012, p. 3.
- ^ Bryce 1999, p. 126.
- ^ a b c Astour 1969, p. 382.
- ^ Drower 1973, p. 433.
- ^ a b Collon 1995, p. 109.
- ^ a b Astour 1989, p. 92.
- ^ Podany 2010, p. 136.
- ^ Astour 1981, p. 9.
- ^ Frayne 1990, p. 783.
- ^ Teissier 1996, p. 28.
- ^ Frayne 1990, p. 788.
- ^ Frayne 1990, p. 792.
- ^ Teissier 1996, p. 26.
- ^ van Soldt 2000, p. 106.
- ^ Frayne 1990, p. 795.
- ^ van Soldt 2000, p. 107.
- ^ Astour 1989, p. 19.
- ^ Schwartz 2013, p. 3.
- ^ Schwartz 2013, p. 10.
- ^ a b Liverani 2013, p. 232.
- ^ Feldman 2007, p. 55.
- ^ van Soldt 2000, p. 109.
- ^ a b Burke 2013, p. 409.
- ^ Teissier 1996, p. 38.
- ^ Dalley 2002, p. 51.
- ^ Owen 2000, p. 618.
- ^ Nathanson 2013, p. 72.
- ^ a b c Kupper 1973, p. 41.
- ^ Zohar 2013, p. 95.
- ^ Sicker 2003, p. 32.
- ^ Pruzsinszky 2007, p. 23.
- ^ a b c d e f van Koppen 2010, p. 212.
- ^ van Koppen 2010, p. 213.
- ^ Foster 2009, p. 148.
- ^ Fleming 2000, p. 90.
- ^ a b c Taracha 2009, p. 121.
- ^ Gonnella 2006, p. 166.
- ^ Gonnella 2010, p. 114.
- ^ Oldenburg 1969, p. 67.
- ^ Oldenburg 1969, p. 160.
- ^ Green 2003, p. 181.
- ^ Green 2003, p. 170.
- ^ van der Toorn 1996, pp. 77, 88.
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External links
- Hadad temple discovery. Kay Kohlmeyer, an archaeologist at Berlin's University of Applied Sciences and the excavation co-director explain about the temple.
- Ansari- ancient Halab.