Yemen Eyalet
the Ottoman Empire | |||||||||||||
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1517–1636 1849–1872 | |||||||||||||
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Yemeni | |||||||||||||
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• Established | 1517 | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1872 | ||||||||||||
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Today part of | Saudi Arabia Yemen |
The Yemen Eyalet
Ottoman rule
The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and the trade route with India in spices and textiles—both threatened, and the latter virtually eclipsed, by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the early 16th century.
Yemen is a land with no lord, an empty province. It would be not only possible but easy to capture, and should it be captured, it would be master of the lands of India and send every year a great amount of gold and jewels to Constantinople.
Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruled over the northern highlands including Sana'a, while Aden was held by the last Tahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Pasha stormed Aden in 1538, killing its ruler, and extended Ottoman authority to include Zabid in 1539 and eventually Tihama in its entirety.[7] Zabid became the administrative headquarters of Yemen Eyalet.[7] The Ottoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands. They held sway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around Zabid, Mocha, and Aden.[8] Of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from Egypt between 1539 and 1547, only 7,000 survived.[9] The Ottoman accountant-general in Egypt remarked:[9]
We have seen no foundry like Yemen for our soldiers. Each time we have sent an expeditionary force there, it has melted away like salt dissolved in water.
The Ottomans sent yet another expeditionary force to Zabid in 1547, while Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din was ruling the highlands independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other son al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya.[10] Al-Mutahhar was lame, so he was not qualified for the imamate.[10] He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor in Zabid, to attack his father.[11] Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam al-Mutahhar stormed Taiz and marched north toward Sana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imam al-Mutahhar a Sanjak-bey with authority over 'Amran. Imam al-Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a, but the Ottomans, led by Özdemir Pasha, forced al-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress in Thula. Özdemir Pasha effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. He was considered a competent ruler given Yemen's notorious lawlessness, garrisoning the main cities, building new fortresses, and rendering secure the main routes.[12] Özdemir died in Sana'a in 1561 and was succeeded by Mahmud Pasha.
Unlike Özdemir's brief but able leadership, Mahmud Pasha was described by other Ottoman officials as a corrupt and unscrupulous governor. He used his authority to take over several castles, some of which belonged to the former
The Zaydi tribesmen in the northern highlands particularly those of
In 1632, Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force of 1,000 men to conquer Mecca.
During that period, Yemen was the sole
Great Britain and the nine regions
The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to India. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-trip from
Haines bombarded Aden from his warship in January 1839. The ruler of Lahej, who was in Aden at the time, ordered his guards to defend the port, but they failed in the face of overwhelming military and naval power. The British managed to occupy Aden and agreed to compensate the sultan with an annual payment of 6,000 riyals.[41] The British evicted the Sultan of Lahej from Aden and forced him to accept their "protection".[41] In November 1839, 5,000 tribesmen tried to retake the town but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The British realised that Aden's prosperity depended on their relations with the neighbouring tribes, which required that they rest on a firm and satisfactory basis.[42]
The British government concluded "protection and friendship" treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas they would remain independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they did not conclude treaties with foreigners (non-Arab colonial powers).[43] Aden was declared a free zone in 1850. With emigrants from India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia, Aden grew into a world city. In 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of the city.[44] The English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the whole of Arabia, including Yemen as the successor of Mohammed and the Chief of the Universal Caliphate.[45]
Ottoman return
The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from the
The Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions. They even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society, while Yemenite Jews came to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms.[50] The Ottomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country's economic welfare. However, corruption was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This was because only the worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.[51] The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for a temporary duration.[41] The so-called Tanzimat reforms were considered heretic by the Zaydi tribes. In 1876, the Hashid and Bakil tribes rebelled against the Ottomans; the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising.[52]
The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed Ottoman efforts to pacify the land.
Governors
- First Ottoman period
- Mustafa Pasha al-Nashshar (1539/40–1549)
- Özdemir Pasha (1549–1554)
- Mustafa Pasha al-Nashshar (1554–1555/56)
- Kara Shahin Mustafa Pasha(1556–1560)
- Mahmud Pasha (1561–1565)
- Ridwan Pasha (1565–1567)
- Özdemiroğlu Osman Pasha (1569–1573)
- Murad Pasha (1576–1580)[55]
- Hasan Pasha (1580–1604)[55]
- Ja'far Pasha (1607–1616)[55]
- Mehmed Pasha (1616–1621)[55]
- Ahmad Fadli Pasha (1622–1624)[55]
- Haydar Pasha (1624–1629)[55]
- Aydin Pasha (1628–1630)[55]
- Qansuh Pasha (1629–1635)[55]
- Second Ottoman period[56]
- Mustafa Sabri Pasha (May 1850–March 1851)
- Mehmed Sirri Pasha (March 1851–October 1851)
- Bonaparta Mustafa Pasha (October 1851–May 1852)
- Kürt Mehmed Pasha (May 1852–May 1856)
- Babanli Ahmed Pasha (1st time) (May 1856–December 1862)
- Musullu Ali Yaver Pasha (December 1862–August 1864)
- Babanli Ahmed Pasha (August 1864–February 1867)
- Tacirli Ahmed Pasha (February 1867–March 1869)
- Halepli Ali Pasha (March 1869–May 1871)
- Topal Bursali Mehmed Redif Pasha (May 1871–August 1871)
- Succeeded by the Yemen Vilayet
Administrative divisions
Sanjaks of the Eyalet in the mid-19th century:[2]
See also
- Yemen Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire
- Islamic history of Yemen
References
- ^ Almanach de Gotha. Annuaire diplomatique et statistique pour l'aneé 1867. p. 829.
- ^ a b Skene, James Henry (1851). The three eras of Ottoman history, a political essay on the late reforms of Turkey. Chapman and Hall. p. 76. Retrieved 2013-02-25.
- ^ "Some Provinces of the Ottoman Empire". Geonames.de. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. Retrieved 2013-02-25.
- ISBN 978-1-86064-836-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-979879-7.
- ^ a b Nahrawālī (2002), p. 88
- ISBN 978-0-7914-8610-8.
- ^ ISBN 0-89158-300-9.
- ^ a b c Nahrawālī (2002), p. 95
- ISBN 0-905035-04-6.
- ^ ISBN 0-521-34315-1.
- ^ a b Nahrawālī (2002), p. 132
- ^ Nahrawālī (2002), p. 134
- ^ a b Nahrawālī (2002), p. 180
- ^ ISBN 8175330082.
- ^ a b Nahrawālī (2002), p. 198
- ^ Nahrawālī (2002), p. 200
- ^ Nahrawālī (2002), p. 208
- ^ Nahrawālī (2002), p. 210
- ISBN 978-0-295-98910-5.
- ISBN 0-89158-300-9.
- ^ doi:10.4000/cy.11. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-85964-198-9.
- ^ Nahrawālī (2002), p. 197
- ^ 'Abd al-Samad al-Mawza'i (1986). al-Ihsan fî dukhûl Mamlakat al-Yaman taht zill Adalat al-'Uthman [الإحسان في دخول مملكة اليمن تحت ظل عدالة آل عثمان] (in Arabic). New Generation Library. pp. 99–105.
- ^ Amira Maddah (1982). l-Uthmâniyyun wa-l-Imam al-Qasim b. Muhammad b. Ali fo-l-Yaman [العثمانيون والإمام القاسم بن محمد في اليمن] (in Arabic). p. 839.
- ^ Musflafâ Sayyid Salim (1974). al-Fath al-'Uthmani al-Awwal li-l-Yaman [الفتح العثماني الأول لليمن] (in Arabic). p. 357.
- ^ a b c Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France. Vol. 2. R. Faulder. 1789. p. 75.
- ^ a b Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France. Vol. 2. R. Faulder. 1789. p. 76.
- ^ Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France. Vol. 2. R. Faulder. 1789. p. 78.
- ISBN 978-1-84885-589-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7614-4850-1.
- ISBN 1-85728-121-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-5528-1. Retrieved 2014-12-17.
- ISBN 9774249372.
- ISBN 978-0-253-00797-1.
- ISBN 1-85287-249-7.
- ISBN 978-9004265370.
- ^ R.L. Playfair (1859), A History of Arabia Felix or Yemen. Bombay; R.B. Serjeant & R. Lewcock (1983), San'a': An Arabian Islamic City. London.
- ^ ISBN 1-86064-767-7.
- ISBN 1-86064-767-7.
- ISBN 1-86064-767-7.
- ISBN 0-903983-14-1.
- ISBN 1-86064-767-7.
- ISBN 978-0-231-50759-2.
- ISBN 1-86064-767-7.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-4456-8.
- ^ ISBN 9004096841.
- ISBN 978-9004265370.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-137-33421-3.
- ISBN 1-86064-767-7.
- ISBN 9004096841.
- ISBN 0-521-89223-6.
- ^ ISBN 9780295989105.
- ^ World Statesmen — Yemen
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