Yoga (philosophy)
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Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy,[1][2] though it is only at the end of the first millennium CE that Yoga is mentioned as a separate school of thought in Indian texts, distinct from Samkhya.[3][4][web 1] Ancient, medieval and most modern literature often refers to Yoga-philosophy simply as Yoga.[1][5] A systematic collection of ideas of Yoga is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,[6][7] a key text of Yoga[web 1] which has influenced all other schools of Indian philosophy.[8][9]
The metaphysics of Yoga is Samkhya's
The ethical theory of Yoga-philosophy is based on
History
Yoga-practice
The origins of yoga-practice are unclear, but seems to have developed in
The root of the word "Yoga" is found in hymn 5.81.1 of the
युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः (…)[21]
Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [युञ्जते, [yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence... (…)[20]
— Rigveda 5.81.1
The Rig Veda, however, does not describe Yoga philosophy with the same meaning or context as in medieval or modern times. Early references to practices that later became part of Yoga-philosophy, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the oldest Upanishad. Gavin Flood translates it as, "...having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within oneself." The practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE).[22][23]
The Katha Upanishad, dated to be from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, in verses 2.6.6 through 2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge akin to Samkhya, and calls this path Yoga.[24]
यदा पञ्चावतिष्ठन्ते ज्ञानानि मनसा सह ।
बुद्धिश्च न विचेष्टते तामाहुः परमां गतिम् ॥ १० ॥
तां योगमिति मन्यन्ते स्थिरामिन्द्रियधारणाम् ।
अप्रमत्तस्तदा भवति योगो हि प्रभवाप्ययौ ॥ ११ ॥[25]
Only when Manas (mind) with thoughts and the five senses stand still,
and when Buddhi (intellect, power to reason) does not waver, that they call the highest path.
That is what one calls Yoga, the stillness of the senses, concentration of the mind,
It is not thoughtless heedless sluggishness, Yoga is creation and dissolution.
Yoga-practice is also mentioned in foundational texts of other orthodox schools such as the Vaisesikha Sutras,
Separate darsana
Yoga as a separate school of thought is mentioned in Indian texts from the end of the 1st millennium CE. According to Bryant,
Sāṁkhya and Yoga should not be considered different schools until a very late date: the first reference to Yoga itself as a distinct school seems to be in the writings of Śaṅkara in the 9th century C.E.[web 1]
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga and the Abhidharma schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.[19] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, the Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge.[19] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is no fixed self, Yoga is physicalist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul.[19] The third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection.[19]
Philosophy
Yoga-philosophy is Samkhya. In both, the foundational concepts include two realities: Purusha and Prakriti.[28] The Purusha is defined as that reality which is pure consciousness and is devoid of thoughts or qualities. The Prakriti is the empirical, phenomenal reality which includes matter and also mind, sensory organs and the sense of identity (self, soul).[28] A living being is held in both schools to be the union of matter and mind. The Yoga school differs from the Samkhya school in its views on the ontology of Purusha, on axiology and on soteriology.[29][30]
Metaphysics
The metaphysics of Yoga-Samkhya is a form of dualism. It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities.[31]
The
Yoga-philosophy adopts the theory of Guṇa from Samkhya.[web 1] Guṇas theory states that three gunas (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are sattva guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas guna (passion, active, confused), and tamas guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).[33][34] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three gunas.[web 1] When sattva guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmonious, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism.[web 1]
The early scholars of Yoga philosophy, posit that the Puruṣa (consciousness) by its nature is sattva (constructive), while Prakriti (matter) by its nature is tamas (chaotic).
Soteriology
Yoga school of Hinduism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and
Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as sanyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of citta and self-knowledge.[36][37] In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect sant (tranquility) and udita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between sabda (word), artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.[38][39] Once a yogi reaches this state of sanyama, it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and kaivalya, the soteriological goal of the yogi.[38]
The benefits of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism is then summarized in verses III.46 to III.55 of Yogasutras, stating that the first five limbs leads to bodily perfections such as beauty, loveliness, strength and toughness; while the last three limbs through sanyama leads to mind and psychological perfections of perceptiveness, one's nature, mastery over egoism, discriminative knowledge of purity, self and soul.[40][41] This knowledge once reached is irreversible, states Yogasutra's Book IV.
Ethical rules
Ethical rules in the texts of Yoga school of Hindu philosophy include both a theory of values through the observances of positive values and avoidance of negative, as well as an aesthetic theory on bliss from intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives.
Over sixty different ancient and medieval era texts of Yoga philosophy discuss Yamas and Niyamas.[44][45] The specific theory and list of values varies between the texts, however, Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Svādhyāya, Kșhamā, and Dayā are among the predominantly discussed ethical concepts by majority of these texts.[44]
The five yamas listed by
- Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): Nonviolence, non-harming other living beings[47]
- Satya (सत्य): truthfulness, non-falsehood[47][48]
- Asteya (अस्तेय): non-stealing[47]
- Brahmacarya (ब्रह्मचर्य): celibacy, non-cheating on one's partner[48]
Patanjali, in Book 2, explains how and why each of the above self restraints help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.35, Patanjali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to others (
The Niyamas part of theory of values in the Yoga school include virtuous habits, behaviors and observances.[54][55] The Yogasutra lists the niyamas as:[56]
- Śauca: purity, clearness of mind, speech and body[57]
- Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others, acceptance of one's circumstances as they are in order to get past or change them, optimism for self[58]
- Svādhyāya: study of Vedas (see Sabda in epistemology section), study of self, self-reflection, introspection of self's thoughts, speeches and actions[60][61]
- Īśvarapraṇidhāna: contemplation of the Ishvara (God/Supreme Being, Brahman, True Self, Unchanging Reality)[58][62]
As with Yamas, Patanjali explains how and why each of the above Niyamas help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.42, Patanjali states that the virtue of contentment and acceptance of others as they are (Santoṣa) leads to the state where inner sources of joy matter most, and the craving for external sources of pleasant ceases.[63] Other texts of the Yoga school expanded the list of values under Niyamas, to include behaviors such as Āstika (आस्तिक, belief in personal God, faith in Self, conviction that there is knowledge in Vedas/Upanishads), Dāna (दान , charity, sharing with others),[64] Hrī (ह्री, remorse and acceptance of one's past/mistakes/ignorance, modesty)[65] Mati (मति, think and reflect, reconcile conflicting ideas)[66] and Vrata (व्रत, resolutions and vows, fast, pious observances).[67][68][69]
Epistemology
Yoga school, like Samkhya school, considers Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or Pramana.[14] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as Advaita Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the following three Pramanas: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[15]
- Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of the five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of the inner sense, the mind.[70][71] The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:[72] Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ/s with the object, whatever is being studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), Avyabhicara (without wandering; correct perception is without change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).[72] Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[73] Further, some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).[74]
- Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[75] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana.[70] In all except one of the Hindu philosophies,[76] this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples).[77] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to be proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti – the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[77][78] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[79]
- Śabda (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.Carvaka, state that this is never possible, and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.[83]
God in Yoga school of Hinduism
Yoga philosophy allows the concept of God, unlike the closely related
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali use the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutras' release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara. These commentaries range from defining Isvara as a "personal god" to a "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[17][84] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[85]
Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[86]
Sanskrit: क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैःपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः ॥२४॥
– Yoga Sutras I.24
This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by the past or by one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions or intentions (आशय, ashaya).[87][88]
Text sources
The most studied ancient and medieval era texts of the Yoga school of philosophy include those by
References to the teachings of the Yoga school of Hinduism abound in ancient Indian texts of other orthodox schools of Hinduism, for example, verse 5.2.17[90] of Vaisheshika Sutra by Kanada, belonging to the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism and dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE,[91] states[92]
Pleasure and pain results from contact of soul, sense, mind and object. Non-origination of that follows when the mind becomes steady in the soul. After it, there is non-existence of pain in the embodied soul. This is that Yoga.
— Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 5.2.15–5.2.16, [92]
The Nyāya Sūtras by Akshapada variously dated to be from 4th to 2nd century BCE,[91] and belonging to the Nyaya school of Hinduism, in chapter 4.2 discusses the importance of Yoga as follows,[3]
We are instructed to practice meditation in such places as a forest, a cave or a sand-bank. Such possibilities [the opponent claims] may occur even in release. It is, we reply, not so, because knowledge must spring up only in a body already in the state of formation. And there is absence of a body in our release. For that purpose, there should be a purifying of our soul by abstinence from evil, and observance of certain virtues, as well as by following the spiritual injunctions gleaned from Yoga. To secure release [moksha], it is necessary to study and follow this treatise on knowledge [Yoga], as well as to hold discussions with those learned in that treatise.
— Nyaya Sūtra 4.2.42–4.2.47, [93]
The
If it is said that there will result the defect of not allowing room for certain Smritis, we say not so, because there will result the defect of not allowing room for some other smritis [further knowledge], and on account of the non-perception of others. Thereby [pradhāna theory of] the Yoga Smriti is refuted.
The
Yoga is the utter transcendence of the mind and is of two types. Self-knowledge is one type, another is the restraint of the life-force of self limitations and psychological conditioning. Yoga has come to mean only the latter, yet both the methods lead to the same result. To some, Self-knowledge through inquiry is difficult, to others Yoga is difficult. But my conviction is that the path of inquiry is easy for all, because Self-knowledge is the ever-present truth. I shall now describe to you the method of Yoga.
— Vasistha to Rama, Yoga Vasistha 6.1.12–13, [100]
See also
- Rāja yoga
- Bhakti yoga
- Cittabhumi
- Jnana yoga
- Karma yoga
- Shinshin-tōitsu-dō, Japanese yoga
References
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- ^ a b c d Whicher 1999, p. 320.
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Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice.
- ^ Sanskrit: '
Source: Rigveda Book 5, Chapter 81 Wikisource - ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6, pages 117-118
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GN Jha: Chandogya Upanishad VIII.15, page 488 - ISBN 978-0-486-20993-7, page 22
- ^ Katha Upanishad 2.VI.10-11 Wikisource
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- ^ a b SA Bhagwat (2008), Yoga and Sustainability. Journal of Yoga, Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1-14
- ^ Polishing the mirror Yoga Journal, GARY KRAFTSOW, FEB 25, 2008
- ^ Īśvara + praṇidhāna, Īśvara and praṇidhāna
- ^ The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, page 84
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- ^ * Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93;
- Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129
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- ^ ISBN 978-8120811140, page 64
- ^ Original Sanskrit and Translation: The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama SC Vidyabhusana (Translator), The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, University of Toronto Archives
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- ISBN 978-0-415-17363-6, page xiv
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- ISBN 978-0-87395-954-4, page x
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- Whicher, Ian (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-3815-2
- Wood, Ernest (1951). Practical Yoga, Ancient and Modern, Being a New, Independent Translation of Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms. Rider and Company.
- Websources
Further reading
- ISBN 978-0-89281-301-8, Appendix D: Main Sanskrit Treatises on Yoga
- Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-4068-9, Chapter 5
- Karl Potter (2009), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. 1: Bibliography, ISBN 978-8120803084, Bibliography on Yoga school of Hinduism, pages 1073–1093
- Maehle, Gregor (2007). Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy. New World Library.
External links
- Yoga and Freedom: A Reconsideration of Patañjali's Classical Yoga, Ian Whicher (1998), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 2, pages 272–322
- Yoga and modern philosophy, Mircea Eliade (1963), The Journal of General Education, Vol. 15, No. 2, pages 124–137
- Mind/Consciousness Dualism in Sā̇ṅkhya-Yoga Philosophy, Paul Schweizer (1993), Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 53, No. 4, pages 845–859
- Saṁskāras in Yoga Philosophy and Western Psychology, N. Mishra (1953), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 4, pages 308–316
- Plato in the Light of Yoga, Jeffrey Gold (1996), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pages 17–32
- Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta T. S. Rukmani (2006), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 87, pages 123–134
- General Systems Philosophy and Sāṃkhya-Yoga: Some Remarks, M. K. Bannerjee (1982), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 32, No. 1, pages 99–104
- Patanjali's Yogasutras – A Synthesis of many Yogic traditions T. S. Rukmini (1981), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 62, pages 213–218
- The Yogī and the Goddess Nicholas F. Gier (1997), International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 265–287
- Philosophico Literary Research Kaivalyadhama Research Department