Yttrium

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Not to be confused with Ytterbium. For the hacker group sometimes called YTTRIUM, see Cozy Bear.
Yttrium, 39Y
Yttrium
Pronunciation/ˈɪtriəm/ ​(IT-ree-əm)
Appearancesilvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Y)
Yttrium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Sc
↑
Y
↓
Lu
strontium ← yttrium → zirconium
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization363 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity26.53 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1883 2075 (2320) (2627) (3036) (3607)
Atomic properties
Discovery
Johan Gadolin (1794)
First isolationFriedrich Wöhler (1838)
Isotopes of yttrium
Main isotopes Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
87Y synth 3.4 d ε
87Sr
γ
 		–
88Y synth 106.6 d ε
88Sr
γ –
89Y 100%
stable
90Y synth 2.7 d
β−
90Zr
γ –
91Y synth 58.5 d β−
91Zr
γ –
 Category: Yttrium
| references

Yttrium is a

symbol Y and atomic number 39. It is a silvery-metallic transition metal chemically similar to the lanthanides and has often been classified as a "rare-earth element".[7] Yttrium is almost always found in combination with lanthanide elements in rare-earth minerals and is never found in nature as a free element. 89Y is the only stable isotope and the only isotope found in the Earth's crust
.

The most important present-day use of yttrium is as a component of

superconductors, various medical applications, and tracing
various materials to enhance their properties.

Yttrium has no known biological role. Exposure to yttrium compounds can cause lung disease in humans.[9]

Etymology

The element is named after ytterbite, a mineral first identified in 1787 by the chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius. He named the mineral after the village of Ytterby, in Sweden, where it had been discovered. When one of the chemicals in ytterbite was later found to be a previously unidentified element, the element was then named yttrium after the mineral.

Characteristics

Properties

Yttrium is a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous and highly crystalline

d-block
element in the fifth period.

The pure element is relatively stable in air in bulk form, due to passivation of a protective oxide (Y
2O
3) film that forms on the surface. This film can reach a thickness of 10 µm when yttrium is heated to 750 °C in water vapor.[13] When finely divided, however, yttrium is very unstable in air; shavings or turnings of the metal can ignite in air at temperatures exceeding 400 °C.[14] Yttrium nitride (YN) is formed when the metal is heated to 1000 °C in nitrogen.[13]

Similarity to the lanthanides

Further information: Rare-earth element

The similarities of yttrium to the lanthanides are so strong that the element has been grouped with them as a rare-earth element,[7] and is always found in nature together with them in rare-earth minerals.[15] Chemically, yttrium resembles those elements more closely than its neighbor in the periodic table, scandium,[16] and if physical properties were plotted against atomic number, it would have an apparent number of 64.5 to 67.5, placing it between the lanthanides gadolinium and erbium.[17]

It often also falls in the same range for reaction order,[13] resembling terbium and dysprosium in its chemical reactivity.[8] Yttrium is so close in size to the so-called 'yttrium group' of heavy lanthanide ions that in solution, it behaves as if it were one of them.[13][18] Even though the lanthanides are one row farther down the periodic table than yttrium, the similarity in atomic radius may be attributed to the lanthanide contraction.[19]

One of the few notable differences between the chemistry of yttrium and that of the lanthanides is that yttrium is almost exclusively

trivalent, whereas about half the lanthanides can have valences other than three; nevertheless, only for four of the fifteen lanthanides are these other valences important in aqueous solution (CeIV, SmII, EuII, and YbII).[13]

Compounds and reactions

See also: Category:Yttrium compounds
Left: Soluble yttrium salts reacts with carbonate, forming white precipitate yttrium carbonate. Right: Yttrium carbonate is soluble in excess alkali metal carbonate solution.

As a trivalent transition metal, yttrium forms various inorganic compounds, generally in the oxidation state of +3, by giving up all three of its valence electrons.[20] A good example is yttrium(III) oxide (Y
2O
3), also known as yttria, a six-coordinate white solid.[21]

Yttrium forms a water-insoluble fluoride, hydroxide, and oxalate, but its bromide, chloride, iodide, nitrate and sulfate are all soluble in water.[13] The Y3+ ion is colorless in solution because of the absence of electrons in the d and f electron shells.[13]

Water readily reacts with yttrium and its compounds to form Y
2O
3.[15] Concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids do not rapidly attack yttrium, but other strong acids do.[13]

With

binary compounds with yttrium at elevated temperatures.[13]

trimerization reactions were generated with organoyttrium compounds as catalysts.[22] These syntheses use YCl
3 as a starting material, obtained from Y
2O
3 and concentrated hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride.[25][26]

Electron spin resonance studies indicated the formation of Y3+ and (C82)3− ion pairs.[8] The carbides Y3C, Y2C, and YC2 can be hydrolyzed to form hydrocarbons.[13]

Isotopes and nucleosynthesis

Main article: Isotopes of yttrium

Yttrium in the Solar System was created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process (≈72%), but also by the r-process (≈28%).[27] The r-process consists of rapid neutron capture by lighter elements during supernova explosions. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars.[28]

Grainy irregular shaped yellow spot with red rim on a black background
Mira is an example of the type of red giant star in which most of the yttrium in the solar system was created.

Yttrium isotopes are among the most common products of the

nuclear waste management, the most important isotopes of yttrium are 91Y and 90Y, with half-lives of 58.51 days and 64 hours, respectively.[29] Though 90Y has a short half-life, it exists in secular equilibrium with its long-lived parent isotope, strontium-90 (90Sr) with a half-life of 29 years.[14]

All group 3 elements have an odd

neutron-capture cross-section.[28] Electron emission of isotopes with those mass numbers is simply less prevalent due to this stability, resulting in them having a higher abundance.[14]
89Y has a mass number close to 90 and has 50 neutrons in its nucleus.

At least 32 synthetic isotopes of yttrium have been observed, and these range in

ns (76Y has a half-life of >200 ns) and the most stable is 88Y with a half-life of 106.626 days.[29] Apart from the isotopes 91Y, 87Y, and 90Y, with half-lives of 58.51 days, 79.8 hours, and 64 hours, respectively, all the other isotopes have half-lives of less than a day and most of less than an hour.[29]

Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or below 88 decay primarily by positron emission (proton → neutron) to form strontium (Z = 38) isotopes.[29] Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or above 90 decay primarily by electron emission (neutron → proton) to form zirconium (Z = 40) isotopes.[29] Isotopes with mass numbers at or above 97 are also known to have minor decay paths of β− delayed neutron emission.[30]

Yttrium has at least 20

isomeric transition.[30]

History

In 1787, part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock in an old quarry near the Swedish village of Ytterby (now part of the Stockholm Archipelago).[31] Thinking it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten,[32] he named it ytterbite[e] and sent samples to various chemists for analysis.[31]

Black and white bust painting of a young man with neckerchief in a coat. The hair is only faintly painted and looks grey.
Johan Gadolin discovered yttrium oxide.

earth") in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in 1794.[33][f] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed the identification in 1797 and named the new oxide yttria.[34] In the decades after Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within, which in this case would have been yttrium.[g][35][36][37]

yttrium chloride with potassium.[38][39][40]

In 1843,

ytterbium oxide, was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac.[43] New elements were later isolated from each of those oxides, and each element was named, in some fashion, after Ytterby, the village near the quarry where they were found (see ytterbium, terbium, and erbium).[44] In the following decades, seven other new metals were discovered in "Gadolin's yttria".[31] Since yttria was found to be a mineral and not an oxide, Martin Heinrich Klaproth renamed it gadolinite in honor of Gadolin.[31]

Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol Yt was used for the element, after which Y came into common use.[45][46]

In 1987, yttrium barium copper oxide was found to achieve high-temperature superconductivity.[47] It was only the second material known to exhibit this property,[47] and it was the first-known material to achieve superconductivity above the (economically important) boiling point of nitrogen.[h]

Occurrence

Three column shaped brown crystals on a white background
Xenotime crystals contain yttrium.

Abundance

Yttrium is found in most

Apollo Project have a relatively high content of yttrium.[44]

Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is found in most, if not all, organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of humans.[50] Normally, as little as 0.5 milligrams (0.0077 gr) is found in the entire human body; human breast milk contains 4 ppm.[51] Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm (fresh weight), with cabbage having the largest amount.[51] With as much as 700 ppm, the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.[51]

As of April 2018 there are reports of the discovery of very large reserves of rare-earth elements in the deep seabed several hundred kilometers from the tiny Japanese island of

Minami-Torishima Island, also known as Marcus Island. This location is described as having "tremendous potential" for rare-earth elements and yttrium (REY), according to a study published in Scientific Reports.[52] "This REY-rich mud has great potential as a rare-earth metal resource because of the enormous amount available and its advantageous mineralogical features," the study reads. The study shows that more than 16 million short tons (15 billion kilograms) of rare-earth elements could be "exploited in the near future." As well as yttrium (Y), which is used in products like camera lenses and mobile phone screens, the rare-earth elements found are europium (Eu), terbium (Tb), and dysprosium (Dy).[53]

Production

As yttrium is chemically similar to lanthanides, it occurs in the same ores (rare-earth minerals) and is extracted by the same refinement processes. A slight distinction is recognized between the light (LREE) and the heavy rare-earth elements (HREE), but the distinction is not perfect. Yttrium is concentrated in the HREE group because of its ion size, though it has a lower atomic mass.[54][55]

Roughly cube shaped piece of dirty grey metal with an uneven superficial structure.
A piece of yttrium. Yttrium is difficult to separate from other rare-earth elements.

Rare-earth elements (REEs) come mainly from four sources:[56]

  • Carbonate and fluoride containing ores such as the LREE
    Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California, making the United States the largest producer of REEs during that period.[54][56] The name "bastnäsite" is actually a group name, and the Levinson suffix is used in the correct mineral names, e.g., bästnasite-(Y) has Y as a prevailing element.[57][58][59]
  • Monazite ([(Ce, La, etc.)PO4]), which is mostly phosphate, is a placer deposit of sand created by the transportation and gravitational separation of eroded granite. Monazite as an LREE ore contains 2%[54] (or 3%)[60] yttrium. The largest deposits were found in India and Brazil in the early 20th century, making those two countries the largest producers of yttrium in the first half of that century.[54][56] Of the monazite group, the Ce-dominant member, monazite-(Ce), is the most common one.[61]
  • Bayan Obo deposit in China, making China the largest exporter for HREE since the closure of the Mountain Pass mine in the 1990s.[54][56]
  • Ion absorption clays or Lognan clays are the weathering products of granite and contain only 1% of REEs.
    samarskite and fergusonite (which also stand for group names).[49]

One method for obtaining pure yttrium from the mixed oxide ores is to dissolve the oxide in

yttrium fluoride is obtained.[64] When quaternary ammonium salts are used as extractants, most yttrium will remain in the aqueous phase. When the counter-ion
is nitrate, the light lanthanides are removed, and when the counter-ion is thiocyanate, the heavy lanthanides are removed. In this way, yttrium salts of 99.999% purity are obtained. In the usual situation, where yttrium is in a mixture that is two-thirds heavy-lanthanide, yttrium should be removed as soon as possible to facilitate the separation of the remaining elements.

Annual world production of yttrium oxide had reached 600

arc furnace of greater than 1,600 °C is sufficient to melt the yttrium.[49][64]

Applications

Consumer

CRT televisions
.

The red component of

LEDs
.

Yttria is used as a sintering additive in the production of porous silicon nitride.[67]

Yttrium compounds are used as a

radioactive.[69]

Garnets

Nd:YAG laser rod 0.5 cm (0.20 in) in diameter

Yttrium is used in the production of a large variety of

LEDs.[73][74][75]

Czochralski process.[78]

Material enhancer

Small amounts of yttrium (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce the grain sizes of

oxidation (see graphite nodule discussion below).[66]

Yttrium can be used to

Yttria stabilizes the cubic form of zirconia in jewelry.[80]

Yttrium has been studied as a nodulizer in

ductile cast iron, forming the graphite into compact nodules instead of flakes to increase ductility and fatigue resistance.[14] Having a high melting point, yttrium oxide is used in some ceramic and glass to impart shock resistance and low thermal expansion properties.[14] Those same properties make such glass useful in camera lenses.[49]

Medical

The radioactive isotope

Yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan for the treatment of various cancers, including lymphoma, leukemia, liver, ovarian, colorectal, pancreatic and bone cancers.[51] It works by adhering to monoclonal antibodies, which in turn bind to cancer cells and kill them via intense β-radiation from the yttrium-90 (see monoclonal antibody therapy).[81]

A technique called radioembolization is used to treat hepatocellular carcinoma and liver metastasis. Radioembolization is a low toxicity, targeted liver cancer therapy that uses millions of tiny beads made of glass or resin containing radioactive yttrium-90. The radioactive microspheres are delivered directly to the blood vessels feeding specific liver tumors/segments or lobes. It is minimally invasive and patients can usually be discharged after a few hours. This procedure may not eliminate all tumors throughout the entire liver, but works on one segment or one lobe at a time and may require multiple procedures.[82]

Also see radioembolization in the case of combined cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Needles made of yttrium-90, which can cut more precisely than scalpels, have been used to sever pain-transmitting nerves in the spinal cord,[32] and yttrium-90 is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in people with conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.[83]

A neodymium-doped yttrium–aluminium–garnet laser has been used in an experimental, robot-assisted radical prostatectomy in canines in an attempt to reduce collateral nerve and tissue damage,[84] and erbium-doped lasers are coming into use for cosmetic skin resurfacing.[8]

Superconductors

Main article:
high-temperature superconductor
YBCO
superconductor

Yttrium is a key ingredient in the

superconductor developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville and the University of Houston in 1987.[47] This superconductor is notable because the operating superconductivity temperature is above liquid nitrogen's boiling point (77.1 K).[47] Since liquid nitrogen is less expensive than the liquid helium
required for metallic superconductors, the operating costs for applications would be less.

The actual superconducting material is often written as YBa2Cu3O7–d, where d must be less than 0.7 for superconductivity. The reason for this is still not clear, but it is known that the vacancies occur only in certain places in the crystal, the copper oxide planes, and chains, giving rise to a peculiar oxidation state of the copper atoms, which somehow leads to the superconducting behavior.

The theory of low temperature superconductivity has been well understood since the BCS theory of 1957. It is based on a peculiarity of the interaction between two electrons in a crystal lattice. However, the BCS theory does not explain high temperature superconductivity, and its precise mechanism is still a mystery. What is known is that the composition of the copper-oxide materials must be precisely controlled for superconductivity to occur.[85]

This superconductor is a black and green, multi-crystal, multi-phase mineral. Researchers are studying a class of materials known as

high-temperature superconductor.[60]

Lithium batteries

Yttrium is used in small quantities in the cathodes of some

electric vehicles (some cars), as well other applications (submarines, ships), similar to LFP batteries, but often at improved safety and cycle life time. LYP cells have essentially the same nominal voltage as LFP, 3.25 V, but the maximum charging voltage is 4.0 V,[86] and the charging and discharge characteristics are very similar.[87]

Other applications

In 2009, Professor

YInMn blue
, the first new blue pigment discovered in 200 years.

Precautions

Yttrium currently has no known biological role, and it can be highly toxic to humans, animals and plants.[9]

Water-soluble compounds of yttrium are considered mildly toxic, while its insoluble compounds are non-toxic.

yttrium chloride caused liver edema, pleural effusions, and pulmonary hyperemia.[9]

Exposure to yttrium compounds in humans may cause lung disease.

immediately dangerous to life and health.[88] Yttrium dust is highly flammable.[9]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are αa = 7.42×10−6/K, αc = 18.80×10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3 = 11.21×10−6/K.[3]
  2. antineutrino
    are emitted.
  3. ^ See: magic number
  4. conversion electron
    is emitted from the isomer. They are designated by an 'm' being placed next to the isotope's mass number.
  5. ^ Ytterbite was named after the village it was discovered near, plus the -ite ending to indicate it was a mineral.
  6. ^ Stwertka 1998, p. 115 says that the identification occurred in 1789 but is silent on when the announcement was made. Van der Krogt 2005 cites the original publication, with the year 1794, by Gadolin.
  7. ^ Earths were given an -a ending and new elements are normally given an -ium ending.
  8. YBCO
    is 93 K and the boiling point of nitrogen is 77 K.
  9. ^ Emsley 2001, p. 497 says that "Yttrium oxysulfide, doped with europium (III), was used as the standard red component in colour televisions", and Jackson and Christiansen (1993) state that 5–10 g yttrium oxide and 0.5–1 g europium oxide were required to produce a single TV screen, as quoted in Gupta and Krishnamurthy.

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Bibliography

Further reading

Library resources about
Yttrium

External links

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