Yucamane

Coordinates: 17°11′02″S 70°11′46″W / 17.184°S 70.196°W / -17.184; -70.196
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Yucamane
Yucamani
Yucamane as seen from the southwest.
Highest point
Elevation5,550 m (18,210 ft) Edit this on Wikidata
Coordinates17°11′02″S 70°11′46″W / 17.184°S 70.196°W / -17.184; -70.196[1]
Geography
Yucamane is located in Peru
Yucamane
Yucamane
Peru
Location
BCE[1]

Yucamane, Yucamani

El Misti
are also part of the Central Volcanic Zone.

Yucamane, together with the volcanoes Yucamane Chico and Calientes farther north, forms a

summit crater with fumarolic
activity.

The volcanic group was active in the Pleistocene epoch, with the Holocene featuring several explosive eruptions occurring at Yucamane proper and effusive eruptions at Calientes. The last dated eruption of Yucamane occurred 1,320 BCE; whether there were historical eruptions is unclear as some eruptions attributed to Yucamane probably took place at Tutupaca.

Geography and geomorphology

Yucamane lies in the

Tacna Region, Candarave Province, Candarave District[4] of Peru,[1] west of lake Vilacota.[5] The town of Candarave lies 7 kilometres (4.3 mi)[6]-11 kilometres (6.8 mi) southwest from the volcano[7][8][9] and the city of Tacna 90 kilometres (56 mi) south.[10] A number of mostly agricultural towns exist on its slopes, such as Aricota, Cairani, Camilaca, Cucachi, Huanuara, Morjani, Pallata, Susapaya, Tarata, Ticaco, Totora and Yucamane Pampa, as well as irrigation infrastructure and major roads.[11] Sulfur was mined on the volcano in the past.[12]

The area of Yucamane is accessible by a number of roads including the international Ilo-Desaguadero highway,[4] and a road leads up the northwestern flank of Yucamane to a point close to the mountain pass between Yucamane and Calientes.[13] The edifice of the volcano and surrounding region are part of the Vilacota-Maure protected area.[14]

Regional

The Andes are the longest mountain range on Earth, extending 9,000 kilometres (5,600 mi) from the

Western Cordillera and the Eastern Cordillera, with elevations of up to 4,000–5,000 metres (13,000–16,000 ft), which are separated from each other by the Altiplano.[15]

More than 2,000 volcanoes exist in the Andes, mainly in the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Seven volcanoes have been active in Peru since the arrival of the Spaniards,[16] but volcanic activity is typically poorly recorded in Peru, owing to the remote nature of the region and the scarce population.[17]

Yucamane is part of the

El Misti, Sabancaya and Ubinas; the volcanoes Andagua volcanic field, Casiri, Chachani, Coropuna, Firura, Huaynaputina, Tutupaca and Yucamane may have been active in recent history.[18] The largest historical eruption in Peru occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina and caused 1,500 fatalities and severe economic damage.[19] Other major eruptions occurred 2,000 years before present at El Misti volcano,[16] 1,000 years before present at Ubinas and two centuries ago at Tutupaca.[20] Finally, the three volcanoes Ampato, Chachani and Coropuna have heights exceeding 6,000 metres (20,000 ft).[21]

Local

Yucamane is a mountain whose height is variously given as 5,495-metre (18,028 ft),

last glacial maximum.[25] The edifice rises on a gently sloping plain between the Callazas and Calientes rivers.[6] On the southeastern flank a secondary volcanic centre,[13] 4,200-metre (13,800 ft) high[4] Mal Paso, can be found.[13] This cone is 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide and has a partially destroyed crater.[31]

Several other volcanoes lie north of Yucamane, such as the 5,025 metres (16,486 ft),

glaciated,[39] which has left moraines at elevations of about 4,300 metres (14,100 ft)[40] and glacial deposits with a volume of about 0.5–1 cubic kilometre (0.12–0.24 cu mi).[22] This volcanic complex is part of the Cordillera del Barroso mountain chain in southern Peru.[23]

A series of northwest-southeast trending

normal faults runs along the Andes close to Yucamane.[41] The Yucamane fault runs in a north-south direction across the volcanoes, and another fault that runs northwest-southeast is named the Yucamane Chico fault; the Yucamane Chico volcano roughly coincides with the intersection of these faults.[13]

Hydrology

The slopes of the volcano drain westward, eastward and southward towards[13] the Calientes and Callazas rivers in the east and west of Yucamane, respectively. Both rivers flow southward[42] and ultimately join to form the Locumba river, which ends in the Pacific Ocean.[43] The water in these rivers contains large quantities of arsenic derived from volcanic rocks, including Yucamane's volcanic rocks; arsenic in drinking water is linked to internal organ damage and cancer.[44]

Geology

Off the western coast of South America, the

Southern Volcanic Zone) where the angle of subduction is steep enough.[17]

Volcanism in the region has been active since the

composite volcanoes, ignimbrites, lava domes and lava flow fields.[45]

Yucamane is constructed on a

formation),[51] the Neogene volcanic Huaylillas formation[50] and the 10-1 million years old Barroso Group;[41] parts of this basement crop out on the southern side of Yucamane.[27] This basement in turn consists of two major tectonic blocks, the southern Arequipa terrane and the northern Paracas massif; both are formed by igneous and metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and are covered by Mesozoic sedimentary and Cenozoic volcanic rocks.[47] A large ring-shaped volcanic intrusion appears to underlie Yucamane.[52]

Petrology

Yucamane has erupted

calc-alkaline suite.[53] The andesites make up the bulk of the outcropping edifice.[54] These andesitic rocks contain phenocrysts of amphibole, biotite, hornblende, oxides, plagioclase and quartz.[53][24] Calientes has produced a similar rock suite[55] but with a dominance of dacite instead of basaltic andesite and andesite as in Yucamane.[56] The magmas formed through the assimilation of crustal material and fractionation of amphibole.[57]

Climate and natural features

The region has a dry tropical climate,[58] with precipitation on Yucamane amounting to about 200–180 millimetres per year (7.9–7.1 in/year).[59] Most of it falls during the summer months,[60] and the amount of precipitation decreases southwestward towards the coast and away from the mountains.[59] After precipitation events the mountain is sometimes covered with snow.[23] Because of the scarcity of precipitation, the volcanoes are relatively uneroded.[41] Above 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) elevation temperatures are almost always freezing, and while at 3,800–4,500 metres (12,500–14,800 ft) elevation daily temperatures can reach 5 °C (41 °F) night frosts are normal.[32]

Vegetation around the volcano includes a humid

El Misti.[62]

Eruptive history

Yucamane Chico has produced rocks dated to 6.14 ± 0.11 and 5.47 ± 0.09 million years ago.[36] Nazaparco was dated to 6.23 ± 0.1 million years ago,[64] while dates of 540,000 ± 270,000,[65] 486,000 ± 11,000, [36] 200,000 - 150,000 (for the ignimbrite. Its eruption probably reached a volcanic explosivity index of 6 and may have produced a now-buried caldera[56]),[66] 126,000 ± 3,000, 95,600 ± 16,700, 133,400 ± 13,500, 102,000 ± 6,000 and 3,000 ± 3,000 years ago. Yucamane itself has an undated first stage,[37] lava flows dated at 380,000 ± 300,000,[67] 23,000 ± 1,000, 7,100 ± 1,000[68] and 3,000 ± 2,000 years before present.[10] The activity of Calientes and Yucamane overlapped in time,[23] and both have generated lava flows which lie above moraines.[1]

phreatomagmatic eruptions among others,[73] which generated volcanic ash falls, block and ash flows, pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic surges.[1] In total, about 4-5 explosive eruptions occurred in post-glacial time and left tephra deposits over the southern and southeastern flanks of the edifice.[26]

Historical activity

Eruptions reported in 1787, 1802, 1862 and 1902 in the region have also been attributed to Yucamane, although some may actually have occurred at Tutupaca.

BCE eruption as the most recent event.[1]

Yucamane is

dormant volcano.[23] Thermal anomalies of about 3 °C (5.4 °F) of uncertain origin have been observed on Yucamane by satellite imagery.[81] The Caliente geothermal field east of Yucamane, which includes geysers and hot springs,[82] appears to be unrelated to Yucamane.[83]

Hazards

As of 2021[update], the volcano is monitored with

asphyxiation, burial and burns.[90] More than 9,000 people live in the danger zone.[91]

Ash fall from an eruption could extend southeastward to the border with Chile and affect the towns of Candarave, Ilabaya, Pachia, Palca and Tarata.[86] Volcanic earthquakes like the 1999 Ticsani earthquakes at a volcano farther north and volcanic gases constitute additional dangers.[92]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Candarave inhabitants call Tutupaca the "bad mountain" and Yucamane the "good mountain", which may refer to volcanic activity at the former.[74] Volcanic activity at Tutupaca was attributed to Yucamane in part because Tutupaca is more heavily eroded.[75]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h "Yucamane". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  2. ^ a b "Yucamane". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Synonyms & Subfeatures.
  3. ^ "Yucumane". Volcano World. Oregon State University. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  4. ^ a b c d Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 11.
  5. ^ a b "Yucamane". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Photo Gallery.
  6. ^ a b Rivera et al. 2020, p. 2.
  7. ^ a b RIVERA & MARIÑO 2004, p. 2.
  8. ^ a b Vela, Samaniego & Rivera 2014, p. 1.
  9. ^ "Volcán Yucamane". ovi.ingemmet.gob.pe (in Spanish). INGEMMET. Retrieved 2016-08-01.
  10. ^ a b c d "Geología del complejo volcánico Yucamane-Calientes (Tacna)". INGEMMET (in Spanish). Retrieved 15 January 2018.
  11. ^ a b c Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 2.
  12. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 13.
  13. ^ a b c d e S., Lionel Fidel; H., Alfredo Huamani. "Mapa Geologico del Sistema Volcanico Yucamane" (PDF) (in Spanish). INGEMMET. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  14. ^ a b "Volcán Yucamani". Inventario Turistico del Perú (in Spanish). MINCETUR. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  15. ^ Gałaś, Panajew & Cuber 2015, pp. 61–62.
  16. ^ a b c Samaniego et al. 2015, p. 1.
  17. ^ a b Silva & Francis 1990, p. 287.
  18. ^ a b Smoll, Morche & Juárez 1997, p. 1.
  19. ^ a b c RIVERA & MARIÑO 2004, p. 3.
  20. ^ Rivera et al. 2020, p. 1.
  21. ^ Gałaś, Panajew & Cuber 2015, p. 61.
  22. ^ a b c d e f Rivera et al. 2020, p. 4.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 1.
  24. ^ a b Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 53.
  25. ^ a b Rivera et al. 2020, p. 5.
  26. ^ a b c Vela, Samaniego & Rivera 2014, p. 2.
  27. ^ a b Cruz, Vicentina; Vargas, Victor; Matsuda, Koji (2010). "Geochemical Characterization of Thermal Waters in the Calientes Geothermal Field, Tacna, South of Peru" (PDF). Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010.
  28. ^ a b RIVERA & MARIÑO 2004, p. 4.
  29. ^ Silva & Francis 1990, p. 296.
  30. ^ a b S., Lionel Fidel; H., Alfredo Huamani. "Mapa Geomorfologico del Sistema Volcanico Yucamane" (PDF) (in Spanish). INGEMMET. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  31. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 54.
  32. ^ a b Rivera Porras et al. 2018, p. 6.
  33. ^ Rivera Porras et al. 2018, p. 39.
  34. ^ Smoll, Morche & Juárez 1997, p. 45.
  35. ^ a b Cotrina Chávez et al. 2009, p. 21.
  36. ^ a b c Rivera et al. 2020, p. 6.
  37. ^ a b Rivera et al. 2020, p. 8.
  38. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 21.
  39. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 22.
  40. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 23.
  41. ^ a b c Rivera et al. 2020, p. 3.
  42. ^ Cotrina Chávez et al. 2009, p. 26.
  43. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 18.
  44. PMID 22119448
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  45. ^
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  46. ^ Gamarra & Peralta 2017, p. 126.
  47. ^ a b Gałaś, Panajew & Cuber 2015, p. 63.
  48. ^ Smoll, Morche & Juárez 1997, p. 4.
  49. ^ Smoll, Morche & Juárez 1997, p. 3.
  50. ^ a b Cotrina Chávez et al. 2009, p. 19.
  51. ^ Cotrina Chávez et al. 2009, p. 17.
  52. ISSN 0012-821X
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  53. ^ a b c RIVERA & MARIÑO 2004, p. 9.
  54. ^ "Idrogeología de la cuenca del Río Locumba - Mapa Geológico" (PDF). INGEMMET. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  55. ^ Rivera et al. 2020, p. 16.
  56. ^ a b Rivera et al. 2020, p. 17.
  57. ^ Rivera et al. 2020, p. 18.
  58. ^ Galán de Mera, González & Cáceres 2003, p. 124.
  59. ^ a b Cotrina Chávez et al. 2009, p. 32.
  60. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 14.
  61. ^ Cotrina Chávez et al. 2009, p. 13.
  62. ^
    ISSN 1727-9933
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  63. ^ Del Carpio Calienes et al. 2022, p. 46.
  64. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 25.
  65. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 27.
  66. ^ Rivera et al. 2020, p. 7.
  67. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 67.
  68. ^ a b Rivera et al. 2020, p. 10.
  69. hdl:20.500.12544/669
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  70. ^ Rivera et al. 2020, p. 9.
  71. ^ Vela, Samaniego & Rivera 2014, p. 4.
  72. PMID 30760944
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  73. ^ RIVERA & MARIÑO 2004, p. 6.
  74. ^ Samaniego et al. 2015, p. 13.
  75. ^ Silva & Francis 1990, p. 297.
  76. ^ Valderrama, Pablo; Samaniego, Pablo; Mariño, Jersy; Manrique, Nélida; de Vries, B. V. W.; Fidel, Lionel (2013). "Una gran erupción del volcán Tutupaca (Tacna) ocurrida hace aproximadamente 200 años AP: implicaciones para la evaluación de la amenaza" (PDF). Foro Internacional de Peligros Geológicos, Arequipa (in Spanish): 1.
  77. ^ Samaniego et al. 2015, p. 3.
  78. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 19.
  79. ^ Rivera et al. 2020, p. 15.
  80. ^ "Actividad Histórica del Volcán Yucamane". INGEMMET (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2018.
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  82. ^ Gamarra & Peralta 2017, p. 127.
  83. ^ Cotrina Chávez et al. 2009, p. 91.
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  85. ^ Del Carpio Calienes et al. 2022, p. 63.
  86. ^ a b S., Lionel Fidel; H., Alfredo Huamani. "Mapa preliminar de amenaza volcanica potencial del volcan Yucamane" (PDF) (in Spanish). INGEMMET. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  87. ^ a b S., Lionel Fidel; H., Alfredo Huamani. "Mapa de amenaza pro flujos de lava del volcano Yucamane" (PDF) (in Spanish). INGEMMET. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  88. ^ a b S., Lionel Fidel; H., Alfredo Huamani. "Mapa de amenaza pro flujos piroclasticos del volcano Yucamane" (PDF) (in Spanish). INGEMMET. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  89. ^ "Mapa de Peligros del volcán Yucamane". INGEMMET (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  90. ^ a b Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 96.
  91. ^ RIVERA & MARIÑO 2004, p. 14.
  92. ^ Smoll & Huaccán 2001, p. 98.

Sources

  1. ^ Del Carpio Calienes et al. 2022.
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