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← −1
0
1 →
Assamese, Bengali
০
Maya numerals𝋠
Morse code_ _ _ _ _

0 (zero) is a

algebraic structures. Multiplying any number by 0 has the result 0, and consequently, division by zero has no meaning in arithmetic
.

As a

place-value notations that uses a base other than ten, such as binary and hexadecimal. The modern use of 0 in this manner derives from Indian mathematics that was transmitted to Europe via medieval Islamic mathematicians and popularized by Fibonacci. It was independently used by the Maya
.

Common names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought, naught (/nɔːt/), and nil. In contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter O, the number is sometimes pronounced as oh or o (/oʊ/). Informal or slang terms for 0 include zilch and zip. Historically, ought, aught (/ɔːt/), and cipher have also been used.

Etymology

Main articles: Names for the number 0 and Names for the number 0 in English

The word zero came into the English language via French zéro from the

Sanskrit: शून्य) from India.[2] The first known English use of zero was in 1598.[3]

The Italian mathematician Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), who grew up in North Africa and is credited with introducing the decimal system to Europe, used the term zephyrum. This became zefiro in Italian, and was then contracted to zero in Venetian. The Italian word zefiro was already in existence (meaning "west wind" from Latin and Greek Zephyrus) and may have influenced the spelling when transcribing Arabic ṣifr.[4]

Modern usage

Depending on the context, there may be different words used for the number zero, or the concept of zero. For the simple notion of lacking, the words "nothing" and "none" are often used. The British English words "nought" or "naught", and "nil" are also synonymous.[5][6]

It is often called "oh" in the context of reading out a string of digits, such as

Canadian postal codes) may exclude the use of the letter O.[citation needed
]

Slang words for zero include "zip", "zilch", "nada", and "scratch".

cricket, a shortening of "duck's egg". "Goose egg" is another general slang term used for zero.[7]

History

Ancient Near East

nfr
  		heart with trachea
beautiful, pleasant, good
F35

Ancient

hieroglyphs for the digits and were not positional. In one papyrus written around 1770 BC, a scribe recorded daily incomes and expenditures for the pharaoh's court, using the nfr hieroglyph to indicate cases where the amount of a foodstuff received was exactly equal to the amount disbursed. Egyptologist Alan Gardiner suggested that the nfr hieroglyph was being used as a symbol for zero. The same symbol was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.[9]

By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC,

Babylonian system.[10] By 300 BC, a punctuation symbol (two slanted wedges) was repurposed as a placeholder.[11][12]

The Babylonian positional numeral system differed from the later

floating-point number but without an explicit exponent, and so only distinguished implicitly from context. The zero-like placeholder mark was only ever used in between digits, but never alone or at the end of a number.[13]

Pre-Columbian Americas

Maya numeral zero

The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar developed in south-central Mexico and Central America required the use of zero as a placeholder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. Many different glyphs, including the partial quatrefoil were used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the earliest of which (on Stela 2 at Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas) has a date of 36 BC.[a][14]

Since the eight earliest Long Count dates appear outside the Maya homeland,

Olmecs.[16] Many of the earliest Long Count dates were found within the Olmec heartland, although the Olmec civilization ended by the 4th century BC, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count dates.[citation needed
]

Although zero became an integral part of

shell shape" used for many depictions of the "zero" numeral, it is assumed not to have influenced Old World numeral systems.[citation needed
]

Quipu, a knotted cord device, used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean region to record accounting and other digital data, is encoded in a base ten positional system. Zero is represented by the absence of a knot in the appropriate position.[citation needed]

Classical antiquity

The ancient Greeks had no symbol for zero (μηδέν, pronounced 'midén'), and did not use a digit placeholder for it.[17] According to mathematician Charles Seife, the ancient Greeks did begin to adopt the Babylonian placeholder zero for their work in astronomy after 500 BC, representing it with the lowercase Greek letter ό (όμικρον: omicron). However, after using the Babylonian placeholder zero for astronomical calculations they would typically convert the numbers back into Greek numerals. Greeks seemed to have a philosophical opposition to using zero as a number.[18] Other scholars give the Greek partial adoption of the Babylonian zero a later date, with neuroscientist Andreas Nieder giving a date of after 400 BC and mathematician Robert Kaplan dating it after the conquests of Alexander.[19][20]

Greeks seemed unsure about the status of zero as a number. Some of them asked themselves, "How can not being be?", leading to philosophical and, by the

medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of zero and the vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of zero.[21]

Fragment of papyrus with clear Greek script, lower-right corner suggests a tiny zero with a double-headed arrow shape above it
Example of the early Greek symbol for zero (lower right corner) from a 2nd-century papyrus

By AD 150,

convex sides), where d was the digit function and 31′20″ was the sum of the radii of the Sun's and Moon's discs.[26]
Ptolemy's symbol was a placeholder as well as a number used by two continuous mathematical functions, one within another, so it meant zero, not none.

The earliest use of zero in the calculation of the

calculators of Easter. The initial "N" was used as a zero symbol in a table of Roman numerals by Bede—or his colleagues—around AD 725.[29]

In most cultures, 0 was identified before the idea of negative things (i.e., quantities less than zero) was accepted.

China

Five illustrated boxes from left to right contain a T-shape, an empty box, three vertical bars, three lower horizontal bars with an inverted wide T-shape above, and another empty box. Numerals underneath left to right are six, zero, three, nine, and zero
This is a depiction of zero expressed in Chinese counting rods, based on the example provided by A History of Mathematics. An empty space is used to represent zero.[30]

The Sūnzĭ Suànjīng, of unknown date but estimated to be dated from the 1st to 5th centuries AD, and Japanese records dated from the 18th century, describe how the 4th century BC Chinese counting rods system enabled one to perform decimal calculations. As noted in the Xiahou Yang Suanjing (425–468 AD), to multiply or divide a number by 10, 100, 1000, or 10000, all one needs to do, with rods on the counting board, is to move them forwards, or back, by 1, 2, 3, or 4 places.[31] According to A History of Mathematics, the rods "gave the decimal representation of a number, with an empty space denoting zero".[30] The counting rod system is considered a positional notation system.[32]

Zero was not treated as a number at that time, but as a "vacant position".[33] Qín Jiǔsháo's 1247 Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections is the oldest surviving Chinese mathematical text using a round symbol 〇 for zero.[34] The origin of this symbol is unknown; it may have been borrowed from Indian sources or produced by modifying a square symbol.[35] Chinese authors had been familiar with the idea of negative numbers by the Han dynasty (2nd century AD), as seen in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.[36]

India

binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), a notation similar to Morse code.[39] Pingala used the Sanskrit word śūnya explicitly to refer to zero.[37]

The concept of zero as a written digit in the decimal place value notation was developed in India.[40] A symbol for zero, a large dot likely to be the precursor of the still-current hollow symbol, is used throughout the Bakhshali manuscript, a practical manual on arithmetic for merchants.[41] In 2017, three samples from the manuscript were shown by radiocarbon dating to come from three different centuries: from AD 224–383, AD 680–779, and AD 885–993, making it South Asia's oldest recorded use of the zero symbol. It is not known how the birch bark fragments from different centuries forming the manuscript came to be packaged together.[42][43][44]

The

Saka era 380), uses a decimal place-value system, including a zero. In this text, śūnya ("void, empty") is also used to refer to zero.[45]

The Aryabhatiya (c. 500), states sthānāt sthānaṁ daśaguṇaṁ syāt "from place to place each is ten times the preceding".[46][47][48]

Rules governing the use of zero appeared in Brahmagupta's Brahmasputha Siddhanta (7th century), which states the sum of zero with itself as zero, and incorrectly describes division by zero in the following way:[49][50]

A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator. Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator. Zero divided by zero is zero.

Epigraphy

Saka era
605 corresponds to AD 683). The earliest known material use of zero as a decimal figure.

A black dot is used as a decimal placeholder in the Bakhshali manuscript, portions of which date from AD 224–993.[42]

There are numerous copper plate inscriptions, with the same small O in them, some of them possibly dated to the 6th century, but their date or authenticity may be open to doubt.[10]

A stone tablet found in the ruins of a temple near Sambor on the

Saka era, corresponding to a date of AD 683.[51]

The first known use of special glyphs for the decimal digits that includes the indubitable appearance of a symbol for the digit zero, a small circle, appears on a stone inscription found at the Chaturbhuj Temple, Gwalior, in India, dated 876.[52][53]

Middle Ages

Transmission to Islamic culture

See also: History of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system

The Arabic-language inheritance of science was largely Greek,[54] followed by Hindu influences.[55] In 773, at Al-Mansur's behest, translations were made of many ancient treatises including Greek, Roman, Indian, and others.

In AD 813, astronomical tables were prepared by a

Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, using Hindu numerals;[55] and about 825, he published a book synthesizing Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution to mathematics including an explanation of the use of zero.[56] This book was later translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum. This title means "al-Khwarizmi on the Numerals of the Indians". The word "Algoritmi" was the translator's Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name, and the word "Algorithm" or "Algorism" started to acquire a meaning of any arithmetic based on decimals.[55]

Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi, in 976, stated that if no number appears in the place of tens in a calculation, a little circle should be used "to keep the rows". This circle was called ṣifr.[57]

Transmission to Europe

The

classical astronomy and instruments like the astrolabe. Gerbert of Aurillac is credited with reintroducing the lost teachings into Catholic Europe. For this reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe as "Arabic numerals". The Italian mathematician Fibonacci
or Leonardo of Pisa was instrumental in bringing the system into European mathematics in 1202, stating:

After my father's appointment by

Latin people might not be discovered to be without it, as they have been up to now. If I have perchance omitted anything more or less proper or necessary, I beg indulgence, since there is no one who is blameless and utterly provident in all things. The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. With these nine figures, and with the sign 0  ... any number may be written.[58]

From the 13th century, manuals on calculation (adding, multiplying, extracting roots, etc.) became common in Europe where they were called algorismus after the Persian mathematician

al-Khwārizmī. One popular manual was written by Johannes de Sacrobosco in the early 1200s and was one of the earliest scientific books to be printed, in 1488.[59][60] The practice of calculating on paper using Hindu–Arabic numerals only gradually displaced calculation by abacus and recording with Roman numerals.[61] In the 16th century, Hindu–Arabic numerals became the predominant numerals used in Europe.[59]

Symbols and representations

Main article: Symbols for zero
horizontal guidelines with a zero touching top and bottom, a three dipping below, and a six cresting above the guidelines, from left to right
Oslo airport train station, Platform 0

Today, the numerical digit 0 is usually written as a circle or ellipse. Traditionally, many print

displays.[62]

A slashed zero () is often used to distinguish the number from the letter (mostly in computing, navigation and in the military, for example). The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays and has continued with some modern computer typefaces such as Andalé Mono, and in some airline reservation systems. One variation uses a short vertical bar instead of the dot. Some fonts designed for use with computers made one of the capital-O–digit-0 pair more rounded and the other more angular (closer to a rectangle). A further distinction is made in falsification-hindering typeface as used on German car number plates by slitting open the digit 0 on the upper right side. In some systems either the letter O or the numeral 0, or both, are excluded from use, to avoid confusion.

Mathematics

See also: Null (mathematics)

The concept of zero plays multiple roles in mathematics: as a digit, it is an important part of positional notation for representing numbers, while it also plays an important role as a number in its own right in many algebraic settings.

As a digit

Main article: Positional notation

In positional number systems (such as the usual

decimal fractions and in the decimal representation of other real numbers (indicating whether any tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc., are present) and in bases other than 10 (for example, in binary, where it indicates which powers of 2 are omitted).[63]

Elementary algebra

A number line from −3 to 3, with 0 in the middle

The number 0 is the smallest

nonnegative integer, and the largest nonpositive integer. The natural number following 0 is 1 and no natural number precedes 0. The number 0 may or may not be considered a natural number,[64][65] but it is an integer, and hence a rational number and a real number.[66] All rational numbers are algebraic numbers, including 0. When the real numbers are extended to form the complex numbers, 0 becomes the origin
of the complex plane.

The number 0 can be regarded as neither positive nor negative

singleton set {0} is a prime ideal in the ring
of the integers.)

The following are some basic rules for dealing with the number 0. These rules apply for any real or complex number x, unless otherwise stated.

The expression 0/0, which may be obtained in an attempt to determine the limit of an expression of the form f(x)/g(x) as a result of applying the lim operator independently to both operands of the fraction, is a so-called "indeterminate form". That does not mean that the limit sought is necessarily undefined; rather, it means that the limit of f(x)/g(x), if it exists, must be found by another method, such as l'Hôpital's rule.[72]

The sum of 0 numbers (the empty sum) is 0, and the product of 0 numbers (the empty product) is 1. The factorial 0! evaluates to 1, as a special case of the empty product.[73]

Other uses in mathematics

The empty set has zero elements

The role of 0 as the smallest counting number can be generalized or extended in various ways. In set theory, 0 is the cardinality of the empty set: if one does not have any apples, then one has 0 apples. In fact, in certain axiomatic developments of mathematics from set theory, 0 is defined to be the empty set.[74] When this is done, the empty set is the von Neumann cardinal assignment for a set with no elements, which is the empty set. The cardinality function, applied to the empty set, returns the empty set as a value, thereby assigning it 0 elements.

Also in set theory, 0 is the lowest

least element of a lattice or other partially ordered set
.

The role of 0 as additive identity generalizes beyond elementary algebra. In

odd
.

The number 0 is also used in several other ways within various branches of mathematics:

Physics

The value zero plays a special role for many physical quantities. For some quantities, the zero level is naturally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen. For example, for an absolute temperature (typically measured in kelvins), zero is the lowest possible value. (Negative temperatures can be defined for some physical systems, but negative-temperature systems are not actually colder.) This is in contrast to temperatures on the Celsius scale, for example, where zero is arbitrarily defined to be at the freezing point of water.[77][78] Measuring sound intensity in decibels or phons, the zero level is arbitrarily set at a reference value—for example, at a value for the threshold of hearing. In physics, the zero-point energy is the lowest possible energy that a quantum mechanical physical system may possess and is the energy of the ground state of the system.

Computer science

Modern computers store information in binary, that is, using an "alphabet" that contains only two symbols, usually chosen to be "0" and "1". Binary coding is convenient for digital electronics, where "0" and "1" can stand for the absence or presence of electrical current in a wire.[79] Computer programmers typically use high-level programming languages that are more easily intelligible to humans than the binary instructions that are directly executed by the central processing unit. 0 plays various important roles in high-level languages. For example, a Boolean variable stores a value that is either true or false, and 0 is often the numerical representation of false.[80]

0 also plays a role in

C, so that for an array of n items the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to n−1.[citation needed
]

There can be confusion between 0- and 1-based indexing; for example, Java's

JDBC indexes parameters from 1 although Java itself uses 0-based indexing.[81]

In C, a byte containing the value 0 serves to indicate where a string of characters ends. Also, 0 is a standard way to refer to a null pointer in code.[82]

In databases, it is possible for a field not to have a value. It is then said to have a

three-valued logic. No longer is a condition either true or false, but it can be undetermined. Any computation including a null value delivers a null result.[84]

In mathematics, there is no "positive zero" or "negative zero" distinct from zero; both −0 and +0 represent exactly the same number. However, in some computer hardware

IEEE 754 and IBM S/390 floating-point formats).[citation needed
]

An

Unix epoch begins the midnight before the first of January 1970.[85][86][87] The Classic Mac OS epoch and Palm OS epoch begin the midnight before the first of January 1904.[88]

Many

APIs and operating systems that require applications to return an integer value as an exit status typically use zero to indicate success and non-zero values to indicate specific error or warning conditions.[citation needed
]

Programmers often use a slashed zero to avoid confusion with the letter "O".[89]

Other fields

Biology

In comparative zoology and cognitive science, recognition that some animals display awareness of the concept of zero leads to the conclusion that the capability for numerical abstraction arose early in the evolution of species.[90]

Dating systems

Main article: Year zero

In the

BC calendar era, the year 1 BC is the first year before AD 1; there is not a year zero. By contrast, in astronomical year numbering, the year 1 BC is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and so forth.[91]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ No long count date actually using the number 0 has been found before the 3rd century AD, but since the long count system would make no sense without some placeholder, and since Mesoamerican glyphs do not typically leave empty spaces, these earlier dates are taken as indirect evidence that the concept of 0 already existed at the time.
  2. ^ Each place in Ptolemy's sexagesimal system was written in Greek numerals from 0 to 59, where 31 was written λα meaning 30+1, and 20 was written κ meaning 20.

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