Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin | |
---|---|
張作霖 | |
Zhang Xueliang | |
Personal details | |
Born | Liaoning Province, First Republic of China | March 19, 1875
Manner of death | Assassination |
Nationality | Chinese |
Political party | Fengtian clique |
Spouses |
|
Children | 14, including:
|
Awards | Order of the Golden Grain Order of Wen-Hu |
Nickname(s) | Old Marshal Rain Marshal Mukden Tiger King of the Northeast |
Military service | |
Allegiance | |
Years of service | 1900–1928 |
Rank | Grand Marshal of the Republic of China, generalissimo |
Battles/wars | |
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Zhang Zuolin
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Origins
Early life
Zhang was born in 1875 in
Zhang asserted that he was a Han Chinese Bannerman.[4]
When he became old enough to work, he got a job at a stable in an inn, where he became familiar with many bandit gangs operating in Manchuria at the time. As early as 1896 (aged 21) Zhang himself was a member of a well-known bandit gang.[2] In one version of his beginnings as a warlord, during a hunting trip he spotted a wounded bandit (Honghuzi) on horseback, killed him, took his horse and became a bandit himself. By his late 20s he had formed a small personal army, acquiring something of a Robin Hood reputation.[5] His bandit career was euphemistically referred to as his experience in the "University of the Green Forest", as he was illiterate.[6]
In 1900 the
Growth of power in Manchuria
During the 1911
On 1 January 1912
In 1915, when it became clear that Yuan intended to declare himself emperor, Zhang was one of the few officials who supported him. Besides political opportunism, Zhang saw Yuan as a central, unifying, and legitimate figure.[12] Furthermore, Yuan had promoted him to military governor of Fengtian to gain his support. Zhang's main rival for power in Manchuria, Zhang Xiluan, had been asked about Yuan's ambitions, and suggested to Yuan that he "think about it a bit more", for which Zhang Xiluan was recalled to Beijing while Zhang Zuolin was promoted.[13]
In March 1916, after many
Zhang, a pragmatist, had always remained cordial with
A Tianjin-based honghuzi leader negotiated with Zhang Zuolin.[17]
Fortress Manchuria
In 1920 Zhang was the supreme ruler of Manchuria. The central government acknowledged this by appointing him Governor-General of the Three Eastern Provinces. He began to surround himself in luxury, building a chateau-style home near Shenyang, and had at least five wives (an accepted practice of any powerful or wealthy Chinese at the time). In 1925 his personal fortune was estimated at over 18 million yuan (roughly $2.6 million).
His power rested on the
Although Manchuria officially remained a part of the
It was proposed that Zhang Zuolin's domain (the "Three Eastern Provinces") take Outer Mongolia under its administration by the Bogda Khan and Bodo in 1922 after pro-Soviet Mongolian Communists seized control of Outer Mongolia.[18]
Japanese and Russian influences
Manchuria shared a long border with Russia, which had been weakened militarily after the October Revolution. The line of the Chinese Eastern Railway, which was under Russian control, ran through northern Manchuria and the land immediately on either side of the tracks was considered to be Russian territory. From 1917 to about 1924 the new Communist government in Moscow was having such difficulties establishing itself in Siberia that often it was not clear who was in charge of operating the railway on the Russian side. Still, Zhang avoided a showdown and after 1924 the Soviets re-established their dominance over the railroad.
The situation's precariousness was demonstrated by an outbreak of
The Japanese posed more of a problem. After the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 they had gained two important outposts in south Manchuria: The
Civil reform
At the beginning of the 1920s Zhang transformed Manchuria from an unimportant frontier region to one of the most prosperous parts of China.[citation needed] He had inherited a financially weak provincial government—in 1917 Fengtian faced ten outstanding loans from foreign-controlled consortia and banks totaling over 12 million yuan. Zhang chose Wang Yongjiang, who had served as head of a regional tax office, for the task of solving Fengtian's financial problems. He was appointed director of the bureau of finance.
A number of currencies were circulating in the province, as was the custom in China, and the paper notes issued by the provincial government had experienced a steady
Next, Wang turned to the chaotic tax collecting system. Because of his former job, he was well acquainted with the abuses of the system and introduced a number of controls. The provincial government had also invested government funds in various enterprises, many of which were poorly managed. Wang ordered a review of government-sponsored firms. From 1918, revenues rose steadily, and by 1921 all outstanding loans had been repaid and there was even a budget surplus. Wang was rewarded by being appointed Civil Governor of Fengtian province while remaining director of the bureau of finance. He retained the title of Military Governor of Fengtian. Still, more than two-thirds of the budget was allocated to the military.
Internal strife
In 1919 France had left Renault FT tanks in Vladivostok after the joint Allied intervention,[20] and Zhang Zuolin soon incorporated them into the Manchurian Army.
In the summer of 1920, Zhang made a foray into North China on the other side of the Great Wall, trying to topple Duan Qirui, the leading warlord of Beijing. He did this by supporting another warlord, Cao Kun, with troops and they successfully ousted Duan. As a reward, Zhang was granted control over most of Inner Mongolia to the west of Manchuria.
In December 1921, Zhang visited Beijing; at his request, the entire cabinet, led by Jin Yunpeng, resigned, leaving him free to appoint a new government.[21] Installing Liang Shiyi as premier, he proposed a new constitution and the resolution of the republic's financial difficulties.[22] Now a figure of national prominence, he quickly came into conflict with Wu Peifu,[23] a divisional commander of the North China Zhili clique, which was based in the province of Zhili that surrounded Beijing.
In the spring of 1922, Zhang personally took the position of Commander-in-Chief of the
On June 22, Wang left Shenyang for Japanese-controlled Dalian, allegedly for treatment of an eye infection. From there he challenged Zhang by demanding restrictions to military spending and complete control over civil affairs. Zhang gave in, lifted martial law and agreed to a separation of civil and military administration in all of the three provinces. Wang returned on 6 August, thereby ensuring Manchuria's continued stability.
Regional development
In the following years Wang realized a far-reaching development plan. He tried to bring more workers into the booming Manchurian economy. Most had come on a temporary basis, returning to their homes in North China in winter. The Manchurian government now encouraged them to bring women and children, and settle permanently. As an incentive, they were made eligible for reduced fares on all Chinese-owned railways in Manchuria, received funds to build dwellings and were promised total ownership after five years of continuous occupation. Rent for the land was canceled for the first years. Most were sent to the interior of Manchuria, where they reclaimed land for agriculture, or worked in forestry or mines. Between 1924 and 1929 the amount of land under tillage increased from 20 million acres (81,000 km2) to 35 million acres (140,000 km2).
Manchuria's economy boomed while chaos and uncertainty reigned in the rest of China. An especially ambitious project was to break the Japanese monopoly on cotton textiles by creating a large mill which, much to Japan's sorrow, succeeded. The government also invested in other enterprises, among them quite a number of Sino-Japanese companies. During this time the Fengtian Army successfully repressed Manchuria's many bandits. Various railway lines were built, among them the Shenyang-
Beginning of the end
After the disastrous defeat of 1922, Zhang had reorganized his Fengtian Army, started a training program, and bought new equipment, including mobile radios and machine guns. In the autumn of 1924, fighting broke out again in
In a surprise move, a Zhili commander, Feng Yuxiang, toppled Cao Kun and took control of Beijing. He shared power with Zhang, and both appointed the same Duan Qirui whom he had ousted in 1920. Zhang purchased 14 more FT tanks in 1924 and 1925 for the army, and they were used in the battles.
By August 1925, the Fengtian Army controlled four large provinces within the Great Wall — Zhili (where Beijing was located but not Beijing itself), Shandong, Jiangsu and Anhui. One unit even marched as far south as the city of Shanghai. However, the military situation was so unstable that Sun Chuanfang, a Zhili clique warlord whose sphere of influence extended along the Yangtze, managed to push back the Fengtian Army again. By November, Zhang held only a small corner of north China, including a corridor connecting Beijing with Manchuria. Attacks on Beijing continued into the spring of 1926.
Manchuria was placed under martial law again, and its economy disintegrated under the burden of the insatiable war machine. Old taxes were increased and new taxes invented. Zhang demanded that
Final years and death
With the loss of his financial expert, Zhang took drastic action. In March 1926 he appointed a new governor, whose only job was to supply the
Zhang provided weapons to anti-
In June 1926, Zhang managed to capture Beijing, and rumors swirled that he was planning to proclaim himself emperor.[25] Instead, a year later, with Kuomintang forces rapidly closing in, he combined his military forces with those of the other warlords, including Zhang Zongchang and Sun Chuanfang, into the National Pacification Army and fought against the Northern Expedition. At the same time, he proclaimed himself Generalissimo of the Republic of China, and thus led China's internationally recognized government as a dictator.[26] However, the Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek attacked his forces, and in May 1928, the Fengtian Army had to retreat towards Beijing. In addition, Japan applied pressure on Zhang to leave Beijing and to return to Manchuria and underscored that by bringing reinforcements to Tianjin. Zhang left Beijing on 3 June 1928.
The next morning, his train reached the outskirts of Shenyang. Here the line passed through the Japanese-operated
Zhang was succeeded, both as warlord of Manchuria and head of the now-exiled Beiyang Government, by his eldest son,
Personal life
Zhang had six wives and 14 children (8 sons and 6 daughters), among which include his son and successor,
.A pragmatist, Zhang supported different movements depending on what would gain him the most power and legitimacy, and even supported the restoration of the
In the Media
There are numerous movies, TV shows and radio shows depicting the life of Zhang Zuolin, including:
- "The Heroes of Troubled Times 乱世枭雄," is a 485 episode radio show read by the famous story teller/actor Dan Tianfang 单田芳, about Zhang Zuolin. https://youtu.be/ThvyGz7lkhE
- "Young Marshal 少帅," is a 48 episode TV show about both father, Zhang Zuolin, and son, Zhang Xueliang, originally aired in 2015. https://tinyurl.com/2bhp3dch
- "Legend of the Old Marshal 大帅传奇," is a 20 episode tv show about Zhang Zuolin, originally aired in 1994. https://tinyurl.com/2xrxjmns
Notes
- ^ Traditional Chinese: 張作霖; simplified Chinese: 张作霖; pinyin: Zhāng Zuòlín; Wade–Giles: Chang Tso-lin; courtesy name Yuting (雨亭; Yǔtíng) and nicknamed Zhang Laogang (張老疙瘩; Zhāng Lǎo Gēda)
See also
- Warlord Era
- Zhang Xueliang
- History of the Republic of China
Footnotes
- ^ Xiao, Lin, and Li 118
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 22, 2019.
- ISBN 0-691-00877-9.
rolls bannermen zhang zuolin.
- ^ Behr 145
- ISBN 978-0-7432-3144-2.
- ^ Louis Livingston Seaman (1904). From Tokio through Manchuria with the Japanese. PRINTED AT THE APPLETON PRESS, NEW YORK, U.S.A.: S. Appleton. p. 150. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
THE HEAD OF THE NOBBEN BANDITS OF MANCHUNIA In the centre, with the author on his right and Capt. Boyd, U.S.A., on his left, is General Chung Tzor Lin, the Manchurian Bandit who is now an officer in the Chinese Army
LONDON SIDNEY APPLETON COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY Original from the University of California Digitized Nov 21, 2007 - ^ Louis Livingston Seaman (1904). From Tokio through Manchuria with the Japanese. PRINTED AT THE APPLETON PRESS, NEW YORK, U.S.A.: S. Appleton. p. 158. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
GEN. CHUNG TZOR LIN, ONCE THE HEAD OF THE ROBBER BANDS OF MANCHURIA, IN FRONT OF HIS YAMEN Showing a portion of his cavalry guard, and the author standing at his left
LONDON SIDNEY APPLETON COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY Original from the University of California Digitized Nov 21, 2007 - ^ Bonavia 63-64
- ISBN 978-1610692861.
- ^ Bonavia 64-65
- ^ a b Chi, Man Kwang. War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria. Brill, 2017, p. 83
- ^ Bonavia 66
- ^ Bonavia 66-67
- ^ Behr 105
- ^ Bonavia 67-68
- ISBN 978-90-04-12607-7.
- ^ Owen Lattimore; Sh Nachukdorji (1955). Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia. Brill Archive. pp. 171–. GGKEY:4D2GY636WK5.
- ^ Nathan, Carl F. (1967). Plague prevention and politics in Manchuria 1910-1931 Cambridge/Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 66.
- ^ Humphreys, The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s, page 26
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 5, 2018.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 12, 2019.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
- ^ Hata 288
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 5, 2018.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 12, 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-231-54623-2.
- ^ "War?" Time Sept. 8, 1924
References
- Behr, Edward. The Last Emperor. Bantam. 1987. ISBN 0-553-34474-9.
- Bonavia, David. China's Warlords. New York: Oxford University Press. 1995. ISBN 0-19-586179-5
- * Hata, Ikuhiro. "Continental Expansion: 1905-1941". In The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. 1988
- Suleski, Ronald. (2002). Civil Government in Warlord China: Tradition, Modernization and Manchuria New York: Peter Lang.
- "War?" TIME Magazine September 8, 1924. Retrieved August 24 2011.
- Xiao Xaioming; Lin Liangqi; Li Zhenguo, eds. (2006). Liaoning, Home of the Manchus and Cradle of Qing Empire (First ed.). Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. ISBN 7-119-04517-2.
Further reading
- McCormack, Gavan. (1977). Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911-1928: China, Japan, and the Manchurian Idea. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804709453
- Matray, James I., ed. East Asia and the United States: an encyclopedia of relations since 1784. (2 vol, Greenwood, 2002) 2:700–701.